ÿWPCÝh zX½rÐ!ÎRèÞø¼åð£"åÁRè89ôøœ©…G8NàïZk¦Ô’Ãn¦l}pMÕx|Φb׸Vv™ûpCŒ41·€ °ŠknÔÁ-‡¯„iNTùi-;])}ótÅÜVt ˆØëÖY0ž§·—ÿ—…ŽI‰y˜ŠI*ã½+Ôý±kŸÎ\j{¹ØéHÿÙù®÷ÒòeâÊÖÝJÈö€íò†òêe+¦”À³–ÐóvWV¦úúË÷ =t­à挂èÆXL‚VK 0±àB%'›ö—x.%Ê+/Õœã2­¬ª¶æûjP¸]6]•ðf§|1†—¯xU—"o¸`{žm®]”Mñt$Èîì¥âÂyxuÀ>‡A¸>v¶`§Í×PÛƒÙäœ7 ‡ª[é 8$ û¥à ?³=æ p9-}èØy‰N/®´ÌÈjÔXYQÛÔWÍéZYìÓ¤FJòÄNÒ y)6hö|@Ê›žæ‹8EMœÑ MÝÕcåˆ.GšH®ú2‰ZQéC¨…ÑáÞňM¸Ogº”Ëkògâ¢Z $¹ý­n¯˜8Vk(»ùÛßDz‘ñÓ×4‚¾gDyë2ÇWv$“#! UN+ %y 0( M§ 0« 0» 0¾ 0ÿÁ 0íÀ 0C­U *ðU,FÖbå Mí Mñ ñ Ñõ õ õ õ –Æ"Æ"Æ"\#\#od# 0ªÓ$m}%xê'«b/^ 2w@24Y2m2|2 m~2½•2 0lR4 0D¾4¾4¾4¾4¾4B5…D7D7D7D7D7D7D7D7D7D7}É;É;É;É;É;§F=F=Äí=í=í=í=í=C±B±B±B±B±B±BfôDôDôDôD 0NZIZIO¨I¨I¨I¨I¨I¨I B÷KºLLLLLLDÎOÎOÎOÎOÎOIQQQQQQs[S[S[S[S[S[S[S•ÎVÎVÎVÎVÎVÎVûcYcYcYcYcYcYcYcYcYcYcY^[^[^[^[^[^[Šx^x^x^x^x^(fffff³*h˜HP LaserJet 4000 Series PCL 6ÈÈÈÈÈÈÈÈ0(uHš Z‹6Times New Roman RegularX($¡¡<pcÿÿ:Footnote RefÓ  ÓÔ Îÿ ÔÔ‡XXXÔÔ?‡ %ä2¼A`Arial?ÔÓ  ÓÔ?‡ %ä2¼A`Arial?ÔÔ‡XXXÔ<ccÿÿ:Footnote TexÓ  ÓÔ‡XXXÔÔ?‡ %ä2¼A`Arial?ÔÓ  ÓÔ?‡ %ä2¼A`Arial?ÔÔ‡XXXÔ<ccÿÿ:Body Text InÓ  ÓÔ‡XXXÔÔ?‡ %ä2¼A`Arial?ÔÓ  ÓÔ?‡ %ä2¼A`Arial?ÔÔ‡XXXÔ8ccÿÿ6Block TextÓ  ÓÔ‡XXXÔÔ?‡ %ä2¼A`Arial?ÔÓ  ÓÔ?‡ %ä2¼A`Arial?ÔÔ‡XXXÔ&ccÿÿ$1Ó  ÓÔ‡XXXÔÔ?‡ %ä2¼A`Arial?ÔÓ  ÓÔ?‡ %ä2¼A`Arial?ÔÔ‡XXXÔ(ÿÿ$‘‘òòÚ  ÚÚ  Úóó%ä2¼A`Arialô\  `TmsRmn †Ý ƒ)þÝ$Ýà  àòòÚ  Ú20Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÔ_Ô€Anne€Kenney,€òòKeynote€Address:€Guidelines€vs.€Guidance€for€Digital€Imaging:€TheÐ ° ÐOpportunity€Before€Usóó.€Available€at€Ð –æ Ð(visited€Feb.€7,€2001).€€The€author€is€Associate€Director€of€the€Department€of€Preservation€andÏConservation,€Cornell€University,€and€was€speaking€to€a€joint€conference€of€the€ResearchÏLibraries€Group€and€the€National€Preservation€Office.€€She€further€warned,€ð ðIt€is€important€toÏkeep€in€mind€that€technology€is€not€our€friend.€€If€things€appear€to€be€difficult€itððs€probablyÏbecause€they€are€difficult.ðð€€òòId.óóÐ  d ÐÌà  àSome€have€even€expressed€concern€about€how€millions€of€old€newspaper€editions€haveÏbeen€irretrievably€lost€because€librarians€and€archivists,€strapped€for€space,€microfilmed€and€thenÏdestroyed€the€originals.€€òòSeeóó,€òòe.g.óó,€Mark€Singer,€òòMissed€Opportunities€Dept.:€Did€the€New€YorkÐ ¬ ü  ÐPublic€Library€Let€Some€History€Slip€Through€Its€Fingers?óó,€òòNew€Yorkeróó€at€29€(Jan.€12,€1998);Ð ’â  ÐNicholas€Baker,€òòDeadlineóó,€New€Yorker€at€42€(July€24,€2000).€€Even€library€professionals€whoÐ xÈ  Ðsupport€microfilming€are€wary€of€digitization€of€documents€as€a€preservation€strategy.€€Smith,ÏòòWhy€Digitize?óó€at€3„4;€Ô_ÔHartmutÔ_Ô€Ô_ÔWelerÔ_Ô,€Marianne€Ô_ÔDorrÔ_Ô,€òòDigitization€as€a€Means€of€Preservation?óóÐ D”  Ðat€ðð1€(Oct.€1997),€available€at€€(Ô_ÔvistitedÔ_ÔÏFeb.€13,€2001)€(final€report€of€a€working€group€of€the€German€Research€Association,€translatedÏand€distributed€by€the€European€Commission€on€Preservation€and€Access). Ý ƒ)üÝ$Ýà  àòòÚ  Ú23Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÔ_Ô€These€principles€are€followed€in€other€areas€of€commercial€litigation.€€ð ð[Ô_ÔI]tÔ_Ô€is€Ô_ÔhornbookÔ_ÔÐ ° Ðlaw€that€ððdoubts€as€to€the€certainty€of€damages€will€be€resolved€against€the€wrongdoer,€as€theÏwrongdoer€must€bear€the€uncertainty€which€its€conduct€has€created.ðð€òòIn€re€Sumitomo€CopperÐ |Ì ÐÔ_ÔLitigÔ_Ô.óó,€182€Ô_ÔF.R.D.Ô_Ô€85,€93€(Ô_ÔS.D.N.YÔ_Ô€1998)òòóó€(quoting€22€Am.€Ô_ÔJurÔ_Ô.2d€Damages€€ðð€491€(1988)).€€òòSeeóóÐ b² Ðòòalsoóó€òòStory€Parchment€Co.€v.€Paterson€Parchment€Paper€Co.óó,€282€U.S.€555,€563€(1931)€(ð ðIt€will€beÐ H˜ Ðenough€if€the€evidence€shows€the€extent€of€the€damages€as€a€matter€of€just€and€reasonableÏinferenceðð);€òòLaw€v.€NCAAóó,€5€F.€Supp.2d€921,€929€(D.€Ô_ÔKanÔ_Ô.€1998)òòóó€(ð ðOur€willingness€to€accept€aÐ  d Ðdegree€of€uncertainty€in€fixing€the€amount€of€damages€rests€in€part€on€the€difficulty€ofÏascertaining€business€damages,€in€that€ðð[Ô_Ôt]heÔ_Ô€vagaries€of€the€marketplace€usually€deny€us€sureÏknowledge€of€what€plaintiffððs€situation€would€have€been€in€the€absence€of€the€defendantsÏantitrust€violationððð ð)€(quoting€òòJ.€Ô_ÔTruettÔ_Ô€Payne€Co.óó,€451€U.S.€at€566).€€Damages€in€an€antitrustÐ ¬ ü  Ðclass€action€ð ðmay€be€determined€on€a€Ô_ÔclasswideÔ_Ô,€or€aggregate,€basis€.€.€.€where€the€computerizedÏrecords€of€the€particular€industry,€supplemented€by€claims€forms,€provide€a€means€to€distributeÏdamages€to€injured€class€members€in€the€amount€of€their€respective€damages.ðð€€òòIn€re€NASDAQÐ ^®  ÐMarket„Makers€Antitrust€Ô_ÔLitigÔ_Ô.óó,€169€Ô_ÔF.R.D.Ô_Ô€at€526.€- ù- ÇÝ ƒ)üÝ$Ýà  àòòÚ  Ú2Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÔ_Ô€Jeff€Ô_ÔRothenbergÔ_Ô,€òòAvoiding€Technological€Quicksand:€Finding€a€Viable€TechnicalÐ ° ÐFoundation€for€Digital€Preservation,€A€Report€to€the€Council€on€Library€and€InformationÏResourcesóó,€at€1€(Jan.€1999),€also€available€atÐ |Ì Ѐ(visited€Feb.€13,€2001). ŒÝ ƒ)üÝ$Ýà  àòòÚ  Ú17Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÔ_Ô€òòPreserving€Digital€Informationóó,€òòsupraóó€at€2.  eÝ ƒ)üÝ$Ýà  àòòÚ  Ú13Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÔ_Ô€Abby€Smith,€òòThe€Future€of€the€Past:€Preservation€in€American€Research€Librariesóó,€atÐ ° Ð13€(April€1999)€(published€by€Ô_ÔCLIRÔ_Ô),€also€available€atÏ€(visited€Feb.€13,€2001).(k2Èû$¥¥Ý ƒ!ÝÝ  ÝÓÓÔ€XHSXXXÔÔ€ Xò2XXXHSÔÚ  Ú0Ú  Ú. cÝ ƒ)üÝ$Ýà  àòòÚ  Ú18Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÔ_Ô€Ô_ÔRothenbergÔ_Ô,€òòQuicksandóó,€at€7„9.€€This€phenomena€will€be€familiar€to€lawyers€who€justÐ ° Ðten€years€ago€may€have€carefully€put€their€forms€and€brief€bank€on€5€1/4"€floppy€disks€with€aÏsoftware€like€WordPerfect€4.1.€€No€modern€computer€can€read€those€disks€anymore.€€Unless€theÏdata€was€fed€into€a€network,€upgraded€and€transferred€by€the€system€administration€to€a€newÐ b² ˆ Ðnetwork€server€(€and€translated€into€a€more€modern€software€version),€it€is€lost. nÝ ƒ)þÝ$Ýà  àòòÚ  Ú20Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÔ_Ô€Anne€Kenney,€ð ðKeynote€Address:€Guidelines€vs.€Guidance€for€Digital€Imaging:€TheÐ ° ÐOpportunity€Before€Us.ðð€Available€at€Ï(visited€Feb.€7,€2001).€€The€author€is€Associate€Director€of€the€Department€of€Preservation€andÏConservation,€Cornell€University,€and€was€speaking€to€a€joint€conference€of€the€ResearchÏLibraries€Group€and€the€National€Preservation€Office.€€She€further€warned,€ð ðIt€is€important€toÏkeep€in€mind€that€technology€is€not€our€friend.€€If€things€appear€to€be€difficult€itððs€probablyÏbecause€they€are€difficult.ðð€€òòId.óóÐ  d ÐÌà  àSome€have€even€expressed€concern€about€how€millions€of€old€newspaper€editions€haveÏbeen€irretrievably€lost€because€librarians€and€archivists,€strapped€for€space,€microfilmed€and€thenÏdestroyed€the€originals.€€òòSeeóó,€òòe.g.óó,€Mark€Singer,€ð ðMissed€Opportunities€Dept.:€Did€the€New€YorkÐ ¬ ü  ÐPublic€Library€Let€Some€History€Slip€Through€Its€Fingers?,ðð€òòNew€Yorkeróó€at€29€(Jan.€12,€1998);Ð ’â  ÐNicholas€Baker,€ð ðDeadline,ðð€òòNew€Yorkeróó€at€42€(July€24,€2000).€€Even€library€professionals€whoÐ xÈ  Ðsupport€microfilming€are€wary€of€digitization€of€documents€as€a€preservation€strategy.€€Smith,Ïð ðWhy€Digitize?ðð€at€3„4;€Ô_ÔHartmutÔ_Ô€Ô_ÔWelerÔ_Ô,€Marianne€Ô_ÔDorrÔ_Ô,€ð ðDigitization€as€a€Means€ofÏPreservation?ðð€at€ðð1€(Oct.€1997),€available€atÏ€(Ô_ÔvistitedÔ_Ô€Feb.€13,€2001)€(final€report€ofÏa€working€group€of€the€German€Research€Association,€translated€and€distributed€by€the€EuropeanÏCommission€on€Preservation€and€Access). ¡Ý ƒ)üÝ$Ýà  àòòÚ  Ú3Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÔ_Ô€ð ðA€primary€source€gives€the€words€of€the€witnesses€or€the€first€recorders€of€an€event.€Ð ° ÐPrimary€sources€include€manuscripts,€archives,€letters,€diaries,€and€speeches€.€.€.€.€€SecondaryÏsources€are€descriptions€of€the€event€derived€from€and€based€on€primary€sources.€€The€lineÏbetween€primary€and€secondary€sources€is€often€indistinct,€for€example,€a€single€document€mayÏbe€a€primary€source€on€some€matters€and€a€secondary€source€on€others.ðð€€Helen€J.€Ô_ÔPoultonÔ_Ô,€òòTheÐ H˜ ÐHistorianððs€Handbookóó€at€175„76€(1972).çƒ~*Æ «¿ÁEÂ[ÃDÄÕÈEÉÊÚ…ü("3|xÚÿU‹ÿÀÀÀ ³Ý ƒ)üÝ$Ýà  àòòÚ  Ú1Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÔ_Ô€Letters€from€all€parties€consenting€to€the€filing€of€this€brief€have€been€filed€with€theÐ ° ÐClerk.€€No€counsel€for€a€party€authored€this€brief,€in€whole€or€in€part,€and€no€person€or€entityÏother€than€òòamici€curiaeóó,€or€their€counsel,€made€a€monetary€contribution€to€the€preparation€orÐ |Ì Ðsubmission€of€this€brief.((3üÝ$¤¤Ý ƒ!ÝÝ  Ýà  àòòÚ  Ú0Ú  Úóó(#Ã$òòÚ  Ú0Ú  Úóó 8Ý ƒ)þÝ$Ýà  àòòÚ  Ú21Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÔ_Ô€Mr.€Ô_ÔOakleyÔ_Ô€further€reported:Ð ° ÐÌà8  àOne€librarian,€at€the€Nashville€òòTennesseanóó,€sighed€and€said€that€microfilm€orÐ |Ì Ðmicrofiche€of€the€real,€printed€newspaper€is€the€archive€of€record;€the€digitalÏversion€is€secondary.€€But€rare€is€the€reporter€„€or€law€firm,€student,€or€ordinaryÐ H˜ ` Ðcitizen€„€who€will€turn€to€microfilm€if€a€digital€record€exists.Ð Ð Ð  ÐÌòòId.óó {Ý ƒ)üÝ$Ýà  àòòÚ  Ú23Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÔ_Ô€These€principles€are€followed€in€other€areas€of€commercial€litigation.€€ð ð[Ô_ÔI]tÔ_Ô€is€Ô_ÔhornbookÔ_ÔÐ ° Ðlaw€that€ððdoubts€as€to€the€certainty€of€damages€will€be€resolved€against€the€wrongdoer,€as€theÏwrongdoer€must€bear€the€uncertainty€which€its€conduct€has€created.ðð€òòIn€re€Sumitomo€CopperÐ |Ì ÐÔ_ÔLitigÔ_Ô.óó,€182€Ô_ÔF.R.D.Ô_Ô€85,€93€(Ô_ÔS.D.N.YÔ_Ô€1998)òòóó€(quoting€22€Am.€Ô_ÔJurÔ_Ô.2d€Damages€€ðð€491€(1988)).òò€€SeeÐ b² Ðalso€Story€Parchment€Co.€v.€Paterson€Parchment€Paper€Co.óó,€282€U.S.€555,€563€(1931)€(ð ðIt€willÐ H˜ Ðbe€enough€if€the€evidence€shows€the€extent€of€the€damages€as€a€matter€of€just€and€reasonableÏinferenceðð).€€òòSee€generally€óó2€Herbert€Ô_ÔNewbergÔ_Ô€&€Alba€Conte,€Ô_ÔNewbergÔ_Ô€on€Class€Actions€ðð€10.03Ð  d Ð(3d€ed.€1992). sÝ ƒ)üÝ$Ýà  àòòÚ  Ú10Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÔ_Ô€See€Abby€Smith,€òòWhy€Digitize?óó€at€8€(Feb.€1999)€(Council€on€Library€and€InformationÐ ° ÐResources€(ð ðÔ_ÔCLIRÔ_Ôðð)),€available€at€Ð –æ  Ð(visited€Feb.€13,€2001). Ý ƒ)üÝ$Ýà  àòòÚ  Ú4Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÔ_Ô€Professor€Carr€was€for€many€years€a€Fellow€at€Trinity€College,€Cambridge. ºÝ ƒ)üÝ$Ýà  àòòÚ  Ú16Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÔ_Ô€See€Jeff€Ô_ÔRothenbergÔ_Ô,€òòAvoiding€Technological€Quicksand:€Finding€a€Viable€TechnicalÐ ° ÐFoundation€for€Digital€Preservation,€A€Report€to€the€Council€on€Library€and€InformationÏResourcesóó,€at€1„2,€4„5,€7„16€(Jan.€1999)€(hereinafter€òòQuicksandóó)€(published€by€Ô_ÔCLIRÔ_Ô),€alsoÐ |Ì Ðavailable€at€€(visited€Feb.€13,€2001);ÏJeff€Ô_ÔRothenbergÔ_Ô,€òòEnsuring€the€Longevity€of€Digital€Informationóó€(Feb.€22,€1999)€(RAND€Corp.),Ð H˜ Ðalso€available€at€€(visited€Feb.€13,€2001);ÏDonald€Waters€&€John€Ô_ÔGarrettÔ_Ô,€òòPreserving€Digital€Information:€Report€on€Archiving€of€DigitalÐ  d ÐInformation,€commissioned€by€the€Commission€on€Preservation€and€Access€and€the€ResearchÏLibraries€Groupóó€(May€1,€1996),€available€at€Ð à 0 Ð(visited€Feb.€13,€2001);€Smith,€òòWhy€Digitizeóó,€at€4„5. 9Ý ƒ)üÝ$Ýà  àòòÚ  Ú5Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÔ_Ô€According€to€Pulitzer€Prize„winning€historian€Barbara€Ô_ÔTuchmanÔ_Ô,€ð ðThe€most€primaryÐ ° Ðsource€of€all€is€unpublished€material:€private€letters€and€diaries€or€the€reports,€orders,€andÏmessages€in€government€archives.€€There€is€an€immediacy€and€intimacy€about€them€that€revealsÏcharacter€and€makes€circumstances€come€alive.ðð€€Barbara€W.€Ô_ÔTuchmanÔ_Ô,€òòPracticing€Historyóó€at€19Ð b² Ð(1981). \Ý ƒ)üÝ$Ýà  àòòÚ  Ú6Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÔ_Ô€òòSeeóó,€òòe.g.óó,€Blanche€Ô_ÔWiesenÔ_Ô€Cook,€2€òòEleanor€Roosevelt:€1933„1938óó€at€xiv€(1999)Ð ° Ð(ð ðBiographers€and€historians€depend€on€archives€and€libraries.€.€.€.ðð).€€For€a€more€detailedÏdescription€of€the€historianððs€use€of€archives€and€the€extensive€research€required€to€write€history,Ïòòseeóó€Ô_ÔTuchmanÔ_Ô,€òòsupraóó€at€18„37,€76„79.€€Even€in€the€archives,€the€historian€cannot€assume€that€theÐ b² Ðnecessary€materials€will€be€neatly€catalogued€anywhere.€€In€researching€her€biography€of€J.P.ÏMorgan,€Jean€Ô_ÔStrouseÔ_Ô€found€ð ðvaults€of€Ô_ÔuncataloguedÔ_Ô€biographical€documents,€includingÏMorgan's€childhood€diaries€and€schoolbooks,€his€adult€letters€and€cables,€volumes€of€businessÏcorrespondence,€hundreds€of€photographs,€and€extensive€files€on€his€purchases€of€art.ðð€€JeanÏÔ_ÔStrouseÔ_Ô,€òòMorgan:€American€Financieróó€at€x€(1999).(ÍO$——ÔÿÔòòóóÔÿÔ EÝ ƒ)üÝ$Ýà  àòòÚ  Ú7Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÔ_Ô€According€to€their€website,€the€Ô_ÔNexisÔ_Ô€database€contains€full€text€of€articles€from€TheÐ ° ÐNew€York€Times€only€back€to€January€1,1980;€the€Washington€Post€back€to€January€1,€1977;ÏNewsday€back€to€January€2,€1988;€Time€Magazine€back€to€January€5,€1981;€the€Chicago€TribuneÏback€to€January€1,€1985;€and€the€Arizona€Republic€back€to€January€1,€1993.€€òòSeeóóÐ b² Ѐ(visited€February€9,€2001). d °Ý ƒ)üÝ$Ýà  àòòÚ  Ú8Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÔ_Ô€In€a€recent€interview,€Charles€Ô_ÔMadayÔ_Ô,€Jr.,€senior€vice€president€of€programming€for€TheÐ ° ÐHistory€Channel,€noted,€ð ðI€donððt€think€Ken€Burns€is€really€a€historian.€€Heððs€a€Ô_ÔfilmmakerÔ_Ô€whoððsÏinterested€in€history.ðð€€Ronald€J.€Ô_ÔGreleÔ_Ô,€òòAn€Interview€with€Charles€Ô_ÔMadayÔ_Ô€Jr.€of€€The€HistoryÐ |Ì ÐChannelóó,€Newsletter€of€the€Organization€of€American€Historians€(Nov.€2000),€also€available€atÐ b² Ѐ(visited€Feb.€9,€2001).€€It€is€surely€noÏcriticism€of€Mr.€Burns€that€his€extraordinary€films€are€the€product€of€a€very€different€process,Ïwith€a€different€audience€in€mind,€from€that€of€professional€historians€creating€a€monograph. :Ý ƒ)üÝ$Ýà  àòòÚ  Ú9Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÔ_Ô€òòSeeóó,€òòe.g.óó,€The€American€Memory€Homepage,€presented€by€the€Library€of€CongressððsÐ ° ÐNational€Digital€Library€Program,€available€atÏ€(visited€Feb.12,€2001). ?Ý ƒ)üÝ$Ýà  àòòÚ  Ú11Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÔ_Ô€A€highly€regarded€French€historian,€Bloch€fought€in€the€French€army€in€World€War€IIÐ ° Ðuntil€its€defeat€in€May€1940.€€After€his€release€to€Vichy€France,€he€wrote€the€text€for€this€bookÏand€then€joined€the€French€resistance€in€1942.€€He€was€captured€by€the€Nazis€in€Spring€1944,Ïimprisoned,€tortured,€and€finally€executed€on€June€16,€1944.€€The€book€was€readied€forÏpublication€by€historian€Lucien€Ô_ÔFebvreÔ_Ô€after€the€war.€€òòId.óó€at€viii„ix. iÝ ƒ)üÝ$Ýà  àòòÚ  Ú12Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÔ_Ô€For€example,€assume€it€was€possible€to€find€on€a€computer€database€the€lead€storyÐ ° Ðabout€the€results€of€the€presidential€election€which€ran€in€the€Chicago€Tribune€on€November€3,Ï1948.€€Any€historian€who€simply€attempted€to€report€the€content€of€the€story,€without€havingÏseen€the€article€with€its€banner€headline€ð ðDEWEY€DEFEATS€TRUMAN,ðð€would€have€missed€aÏgreat€deal€of€the€publicationððs€import.€€Fortunately,€it€was€captured€in€the€memorable€photographÏof€a€grinning€(and€victorious)€President€Truman€holding€the€newspaper€aloft€several€hours€later€„Ïa€photograph€that€would€not€be€available€on€Ô_ÔNexisÔ_Ô,€which€does€not€contain€any€nontextualÏmaterial.€€òòSeeóó€Ô_ÔMcCulloughÔ_Ô,€òòTrumanóó,€at€718. ‹Ý ƒ)üÝ$Ýà  àòòÚ  Ú14Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÔ_Ô€ð ðThe€size€of€newspapers€is€indispensable€to€our€experience€of€their€content.€€TheÐ ° Ðnewspaper€reader€proceeds€Ô_ÔnonlinearlyÔ_Ô,€not€as€he€would€holding€a€typical€book€but€circlingÏaround€the€open€double„page€spread€.€.€.€moving€his€whole€head€as€well€as€his€eyes.€.€.€.€€EvenÏpapers€that€have€no€pictures€at€all€have€a€visual€exorbitance,€a€horizon„usurping€presence€that€aÏmicrofilmððs€image€.€.€.€subverts€and€trivializes.ðð€€€Nicholas€Baker,€òòDeadlineóó,€New€Yorker€at€49Ð H˜ Ð(July€24,€2000). ñÝ ƒ)üÝ$Ýà  àòòÚ  Ú15Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÔ_Ô€Advertisements€can€be€critical€to€the€political€historian€as€well.€€As€one€example,€Ð ° Ðhistorians€writing€about€the€U.S.€presidential€campaign€of€1968€would€miss€a€great€deal€if€theyÏwere€ignorant€of€the€numerous€full„page€advertisements€appearing€in€The€New€York€TimesÏduring€1967„68,€signed€by€thousands€of€educators€and€other€professionals,€opposing€PresidentÏJohnsonððs€policy€in€Vietnam. Ý ƒ)üÝ$Ýà  àòòÚ  Ú19Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÔ_Ô€Mr.€Ô_ÔStilleÔ_Ô€cites€a€number€of€examples€of€the€problems€faced€by€the€National€Archives:Ð ° ÐÌà8  àIn€the€nineteen„eighties,€the€Archives€transferred€some€two€hundred€thousandÏdocuments€and€images€onto€optical€disks€„€the€cutting€edge€of€new€technology€atÏthe€time.€€ð ðIððm€not€sure€we€can€still€play€them,ðð€[a€preservation€specialist]€says,Ïbecause€they€depend€on€computer€software€and€hardware€that€are€no€longer€on€theÏmarket.Ð Ð Ð  ÐÌòòId.óó€at€42.€€In€addition,€many€of€the€governmentððs€records€from€the€Vietnam€War€era€were€storedÐ à 0 Ðon€a€data€system€that€IBM€no€longer€supports.€€òòId.óó€at€43. €Ý ƒ)üÝ$Ýà  àòòÚ  Ú20Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÔ_Ô€Anne€Kenney,€òòKeynote€Address:€Guidelines€vs.€Guidance€for€Digital€Imaging:€TheÐ ° ÐOpportunity€Before€Usóó.€Available€at€Ð –æ Ð(visited€Feb.€7,€2001).€€The€author€is€Associate€Director€of€the€Department€of€Preservation€andÏConservation,€Cornell€University,€and€was€speaking€to€a€joint€conference€of€the€ResearchÏLibraries€Group€and€the€National€Preservation€Office.€€She€further€warned,€ð ðIt€is€important€toÏkeep€in€mind€that€technology€is€not€our€friend.€€If€things€appear€to€be€difficult€itððs€probablyÏbecause€they€are€difficult.ðð€€òòId.óóÐ  d ÐÌà  àSome€have€even€expressed€concern€about€how€millions€of€old€newspaper€editions€haveÏbeen€irretrievably€lost€because€librarians€and€archivists,€strapped€for€space,€microfilmed€and€thenÏdestroyed€the€originals.€€òòSeeóó,€òòe.g.óó,€Mark€Singer,€òòMissed€Opportunities€Dept.:€Did€the€New€YorkÐ ¬ ü  ÐPublic€Library€Let€Some€History€Slip€Through€Its€Fingers?óó,€New€Yorker€at€29€(Jan.€12,€1998);Ð ’â  ÐNicholas€Baker,€òòDeadlineóó,€New€Yorker€at€42€(July€24,€2000).€€Even€library€professionals€whoÐ xÈ  Ðsupport€microfilming€are€wary€of€digitization€of€documents€as€a€preservation€strategy.€€Smith,ÏòòWhy€Digitize?óó€at€3„4;€Ô_ÔHartmutÔ_Ô€Ô_ÔWelerÔ_Ô,€Marianne€Ô_ÔDorrÔ_Ô,€òòDigitization€as€a€Means€of€Preservation?óóÐ D”  Ðat€ðð1€(Oct.€1997),€available€at€€(Ô_ÔvistitedÔ_ÔÏFeb.€13,€2001)€(final€report€of€a€working€group€of€the€German€Research€Association,€translatedÏand€distributed€by€the€European€Commission€on€Preservation€and€Access). Ý ƒ)üÝ$Ýà  àòòÚ  Ú21Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÔ_Ô€Mr.€Ô_ÔOakleyÔ_Ô€further€reported:Ð ° ÐÌà8  àOne€librarian,€at€the€Nashville€Tennessean,€sighed€and€said€that€microfilm€orÏmicrofiche€of€the€real,€printed€newspaper€is€the€archive€of€record;€the€digitalÏversion€is€secondary.€€But€rare€is€the€reporter€„€or€law€firm,€student,€or€ordinaryÐ H˜ ¤ Ðcitizen€„€who€will€turn€to€microfilm€if€a€digital€record€exists.Ð Ð Ð  ÐÌòòId.óó ©Ý ƒ)üÝ$Ýà  àòòÚ  Ú22Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÔ_Ô€òòSeeóó€€(visited€Feb.€9,€2001).Ý ƒ!ÝÝ  ÝÔ_ÔÓ  ÓNo.€00„201ÌÓB.°°` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œXBÓÌIN€THE€SUPREME€COURT€OF€THE€UNITED€STATESÌ______________________ÌÌTHE€NEW€YORK€TIMES€COMPANY,€INC.;€NEWSDAY,€INC.;€THE€TIMEÏINCORPORATED€MAGAZINE€COMPANY;€LEXIS/NEXIS€and€UNIVERSITYÏMICROFILMS€INTERNATIONAL,ÌÌÓ  Óà  àà ` àà ¸ àà  àà h àà À àà  àà p àà È àPetitioners,ÌÌÓ  Óv.ÌÌJONATHAN€TASINI;€MARY€KAY€BLAKELY;€BARBARA€GARSON;Ì€MARGOT€MIFFLIN;€SONIA€JAFFE€ROBBINS€and€DAVID€S.€WHITFORD,ÌÌÓ  Óà  àà ` àà ¸ àà  àà h àà À àà  àà p àà È àRespondents.ÌÌÓ  Ó________________________ÌÌOn€Petition€for€a€Writ€of€Certiorari€to€theÌUnited€States€Court€of€Appeals€for€the€Second€CircuitÌ________________________ÌÌBRIEF€òòAMICI€CURIAEóó€OF€ELLEN€SCHRECKER,€STANLEY€N.€KATZ,€DAVIDÐ @ ÐMONTGOMERY,€LINDA€GORDON,€LEON€F.€LITWACK,€BLANCHE€WIESEN€COOK,ÏPETE€DANIEL,€MARILYN€B.€YOUNG,€ALAN€TRACHTENBERG,€PETER€RACHLEFF,ÏLAWRENCE€S.€WITTNER,€WILLIAM€R.€TAYLOR€and€DAVIS€L.€SCHALK€ÌIN€SUPPORT€OF€RESPONDENTSÌÌÌÌÌÌÌÓ  Óà  àà ` àà ¸ àà  àà h àà À àTHEODORE€M.€LIEVERMANÌà  àà ` àà ¸ àà  àà h àà À àà  àòòCounsel€of€RecordóóÐ %X $ Ðà  àà ` àà ¸ àà  àà h àà À àSPECTOR,€ROSEMAN€&€KODROFF,€P.C.Ìà  àà ` àà ¸ àà  àà h àà À à1818€Market€Street,€Suite€2500Ìà  àà ` àà ¸ àà  àà h àà À àPhiladelphia,€Pennsylvania€19103Ìà  àà ` àà ¸ àà  àà h àà À à(215)€496„0300ÌÌà  àà ` àà ¸ àà  àà h àà À àAttorneys€for€òòAmici€Curiaeóó€Ellen€Schrecker,€òòet€alóó.Ð  l*¼%* ÐÑH°ÑØØÑ€ÑÑ8€HSXXdæXXdæ8ÑÑ  ÑñÚñTABLE€OF€CONTENTSÐ ° ÐÌTABLE€OF€AUTHORITIESÐ  ° ÐñÚñÓÓÓ  ÓINTERESTS€OF€òòAMICI€CURIAEóó׃(×Ý ƒ*#ÃÝòòÚ  Ú1Ú  ÚóóÝ  Ý×  ×Ð ° ÐÓ  Óà  àELLEN€SCHRECKER€is€Professor€of€History€at€Yeshiva€University.€€She€is€the€authorÏof€òòMany€Are€the€Crimes:€McCarthyism€in€Americaóó;€òòNo€Ivory€Tower:€McCarthyism€and€theÐ H˜ ÐUniversitiesóó,€which€received€the€History€of€Education€Societyððs€Outstanding€Book€Award;€andÐ  d ÐòòThe€Hired€Money:€The€French€Debt€to€the€United€States,€1917„1929óó.€€Her€articles€and€reviewsÐ à 0 Ðhave€appeared€in€numerous€publications,€including€Journal€of€American€History,€AntiochÏReview,€American€Historical€Review,€New€York€University€Education€Quarterly,€and€theÏWomen's€Review€of€Books.€€She€has€been€a€research€fellow€at€the€Harry€S.€Truman€Library,€aÏfellow€of€the€National€Humanities€Center€at€Research€Triangle,€North€Carolina,€a€fellow€of€theÏBunting€Institute€of€Radcliffe€College,€and€a€lecturer€for€the€United€States€Information€Agency.€ÏProfessor€Schrecker€is€a€member€of€PEN,€editor€of€the€American€Association€of€UniversityÏProfessors€official€publication,€Academe,€and€has€been€an€adviser€on€numerous€filmÏdocumentaries.€€She€has€also€taught€at€Columbia€University,€Princeton€University,€New€YorkÏUniversity,€and€the€New€School€for€Social€Research.€€She€received€her€M.A.€and€Ph.D.€fromÏHarvard€University.Ìà  àSTANLEY€N.€KATZ€is€currently€Lecturer€with€the€rank€of€Professor€at€the€WoodrowÏWilson€School€of€Public€and€International€Affairs,€Princeton€University.€€He€is€PresidentÏEmeritus€of€the€American€Council€of€Learned€Societies,€the€leading€organization€in€humanisticÏscholarship€and€education€in€the€United€States.€€Formerly€Class€of€1921€Bicentennial€ProfessorÏof€the€History€of€American€Law€and€Liberty€at€Princeton€University,€Professor€Katz€is€a€leadingÏexpert€on€American€legal€and€constitutional€history.€€He€is€also€active€in€the€research€field€of€Ô_ÔartsÐ  (ð#( Ðand€cultural€policy,€and€currently€serves€as€the€Director€of€the€Princeton€University€Center€forÏArts€and€Cultural€Policy€Studies€in€the€Woodrow€Wilson€School,€and€as€President€of€theÏNational€Initiative€for€a€Networked€Cultural€Heritage.€€Professor€Katz€is€currently€completing€aÏbook€on€the€behavior€of€non„governmental€peace€and€conflict€resolution€organizations€inÏNorthern€Ireland,€Israel/Palestine,€and€South€Africa€in€collaboration€with€Professor€BenjaminÏÔ_ÔGidronÔ_Ô€of€Ben€Ô_ÔGurionÔ_Ô€University,€Israel.€€The€author€and€editor€of€numerous€books€and€articles,Ïhe€has€served€as€President€of€the€Organization€of€American€Historians€and€the€American€SocietyÏfor€Legal€History,€and€has€recently€been€the€Vice€President€of€the€Research€Division€of€theÏAmerican€Historical€Association.€€Professor€Katz€has€just€completed€twelve€years€on€the€BoardÏof€Southern€Methodist€University,€and€he€is€a€trustee€of€the€National€Faculty,€the€Ô_ÔNewberryÔ_ÔÏLibrary.€€He€also€currently€serves€as€Chair€of€the€American€Council€of€Learned€Societies/SocialÏScience€Research€Council€Working€Group€on€Cuba.€€He€is€a€member€of€the€New€Jersey€CouncilÏfor€the€Humanities,€the€American€Antiquarian€Society,€the€American€Philosophical€Society,€aÏFellow€of€the€American€Society€for€Legal€History,€the€American€Academy€of€Arts€and€Sciences,Ïthe€Society€of€American€Historians,€and€a€Corresponding€Member€of€the€MassachusettsÏHistorical€Society.€€He€has€honorary€degrees€from€several€universities.€€Professor€Katz€receivedÏhis€B.A.,€M.A.€and€Ph.D.€from€Harvard€University.€Ìà  àDAVID€MONTGOMERY,€who€served€as€President€of€the€Organization€of€AmericanÏHistorians€during€1999„2000,€was€Ô_ÔFarnamÔ_Ô€Professor€of€History€at€Yale€University.€€He€is€theÏauthor€of€òòCitizen€Workeróó;€òòThe€Fall€of€the€House€of€Labor:€The€Workplace,€the€State,€andÐ Ô&$"& ÐAmerican€Labor€Activism,€1865„1925óó;€òòBeyond€Equality:€Labor€and€the€Radical€Republicans,Ð  (ð#( Ð1862„1872óó;€and€òòWorkers€Control€in€Americaóó.€€He€has€served€on€the€editorial€boards€of€theÐ l*¼%* ÐJournal€of€American€History,€International€Labor€and€Working€Class€History,€and€Labor€History,Ð 8,ˆ', Ðand€has€been€on€the€advisory€board€of€the€Canadian€journal€Ô_ÔLabourÔ_Ô/Le€Ô_ÔTravailleurÔ_Ô.€€His€writingsÏhave€appeared€in€such€publications€as€International€Review€of€Social€History€and€theÏEncyclopedia€of€American€Economic€History.€€He€has€been€a€consultant€to€Eleutherian€Mills„¼Hagley€Foundationððs€Museum€of€American€Working€Life€and€the€University€of€MarylandððsÏSamuel€Gompers€archives.€€He€is€a€recipient€of€the€Phi€Beta€Kappa€Society's€Ralph€WaldoÏEmerson€Award,€the€New€England€Historical€Associationððs€Book€Award,€and€was€a€finalist€forÏthe€Pulitzer€Prize€in€History.€€He€has€also€taught€at€the€University€of€Pittsburgh,€WarwickÏUniversity,€and€Oxford€University€in€England.Ìà  àLINDA€GORDON€is€Florence€Kelley€Professor€of€History€at€New€York€University.€€InÏ2000€she€was€awarded€Columbia€University's€Bancroft€Prize€for€her€book€òòThe€Great€ArizonaÐ Ü, ÐOrphan€Abductionóó,€which€also€received€the€Beveridge€Prize€for€best€book€on€the€history€of€theÐ ¨ø ÐAmericas€and€the€Willa€Cather€Nonfiction€Prize.€€Her€other€books€include€òòPitied€but€NotÐ tÄ ÐEntitled:€Single€Mothers€and€the€Origins€of€Welfareóó;€òòCossack€Rebellions:€Social€Turmoil€in€theÐ @ ÐSixteenth-Century€Ukraineóó;€òòHeroes€of€Their€Own€Lives:€The€Politics€and€History€of€FamilyÐ  \ ÐViolenceóó;€and€òòWoman's€Body,€Woman's€Right:€A€Social€History€of€Birth€Control€in€Americaóó.€Ð Ø( ÐShe€has€twice€been€nominated€for€the€National€Book€Award€in€History.€€Professor€Gordon€hasÏwritten€for€numerous€publications€including€the€American€Historical€Review,€Journal€ofÏAmerican€History,€Journal€of€Family€History,€Chronicle€of€Higher€Education,€New€YorkÏUniversity€Review€of€Law,€and€American€Quarterly.€€She€has€served€on€the€U.S.€Departments€ofÏJustice€and€Health€and€Human€Services€Advisory€Council€on€Violence€Against€Women.€€She€is€aÏconsultant€to€the€Schlesinger€Library€Project€for€Collection€and€Preservation€of€WomenððsÏOrganizational€Records,€and€has€also€been€a€historical€consultant€for€numerous€television€andÏmotion€picture€documentaries.€€Professor€Gordon€has€received€numerous€grants,€includingÐ 8,ˆ', ÐGuggenheim,€National€Endowment€for€the€Humanities,€and€American€Council€of€LearnedÏSocieties/Ford€Foundation€fellowships.€€In€addition€to€New€York€University,€she€has€taught€atÏÔ_ÔSwarthmoreÔ_Ô€College,€the€University€of€Wisconsin€at€Madison,€and€the€University€ofÏMassachusetts€at€Boston.€€She€received€her€M.A.€and€Ph.D.€from€Yale€University.Ìà  àLEON€F.€Ô_ÔLITWACKÔ_Ô€is€Alexander€F.€and€May€T.€Morrison€Professor€of€AmericanÏHistory€at€the€University€of€California€at€Berkeley.€€He€is€a€past€recipient€of€the€Pulitzer€Prize€inÏHistory,€the€American€Book€Award€in€History,€and€the€Society€of€American€Historiansðð€FrancisÏParkman€Prize.€€He€is€a€former€president€of€the€Organization€of€American€Historians,€a€memberÏof€the€American€Academy€of€Arts€and€Sciences,€and€a€member€of€the€executive€committee€of€theÏAmerican€Council€of€Learned€Societies.€€Professor€Ô_ÔLitwackÔ_Ôððs€books€include€òòBeen€in€the€StormÐ Ü, ÐSo€Long:€The€Aftermath€of€Slaveryóó;€òòTrouble€in€Mind:€Black€Southerners€in€the€Age€of€Jim€Crowóó;Ð ¨ø ÐòòNorth€of€Slavery:€The€Negro€in€the€Free€States,€1790-1860óó;€and€òòWithout€Sanctuary:€LynchingÐ tÄ ÐPhotography€in€Americaóó.€€His€writings€have€appeared€in€the€Journal€of€American€History,€NewÐ @ ÐEngland€Quarterly,€and€Journal€of€Negro€History.€€He€has€received€grants€and€fellowships€fromÏthe€Rockefeller€Foundation,€the€National€Endowment€for€the€Humanities,€and€the€John€SimonÏGuggenheim€Foundation.€€Professor€Ô_ÔLitwackÔ_Ô€has€taught€at€the€University€of€California€atÏBerkeley,€the€University€of€Wisconsin,€the€University€of€Mississippi,€the€University€of€SouthÏCarolina,€and€several€universities€abroad.€€He€received€his€M.A.€and€Ph.D.€from€the€UniversityÏof€California€at€Berkeley.Ìà  àBLANCHE€Ô_ÔWIESENÔ_Ô€COOK€is€Distinguished€Professor€of€History€at€John€Jay€CollegeÏof€Criminal€Justice,€City€University€of€New€York.€€She€is€the€author€of€many€ground„breakingÏworks,€including€òòEleanor€Rooseveltóó,€a€two„volume€biography;€òòThe€Declassified€Eisenhower:€AÐ l*¼%* ÐDivided€Legacy€of€Peace€and€Political€Warfareóó€(listed€by€The€New€York€Times€Book€Review€asÐ 8,ˆ', ÐÔ_Ôone€of€the€notable€books€of€1981);€òòCrystal€Eastman:€On€Women€and€Revolutionóó;€and€òòCentury€ofÐ ° ÐChangeóó.€€She€has€also€served€on€the€editorial€board€of€The€Garland€Library€of€War€and€Peace,€aÐ H˜ Ð360„volume€reprint€series.€€Professor€Cook€earned€her€M.A.€and€Ph.D.€from€Johns€HopkinsÏUniversity.€€Her€fields€of€scholarship€include€women's€history€and€U.S.€international€relations.Ìà  àPETE€DANIEL€is€Curator€of€the€Division€of€the€History€of€Technology€at€the€NationalÏMuseum€of€American€History,€Smithsonian€Institution.€€His€books€include€òòThe€Shadow€ofÐ xÈ  ÐSlavery:€Peonage€in€the€South,€1901„1969óó;€òòDeepððn€As€It€Come:€The€1927€Mississippi€RiverÐ D”  ÐFloodóó;€òòBreaking€the€Land:€The€Transformation€of€Cotton,€Tobacco,€and€Rice€Cultures€sinceÐ ` Ð1880óó;€òòStanding€at€the€Crossroads:€Southern€Life€in€the€Twentieth€Centuryóó;€and€òòLost€Revolutions:Ð Ü, ÐThe€South€in€the€1950sóó.€€He€has€been€curator€of€several€exhibits,€including€ð ðOfficial€Images:Ð ¨ø ÐNew€Deal€Photography,ðð€ð ðRock€ððnðð€Soul:€Social€Crossroads,ðð€and€ð ðScience€in€American€Life.ððÏMr.€Daniel€has€served€on€the€governing€boards€of€the€Organization€of€American€Historians€andÏthe€Southern€Historical€Association,€and€is€a€member€of€the€board€of€managing€editors€ofÏòòAmerican€Quarterlyóó.€€He€has€taught€history€at€the€University€of€Tennessee.€€Among€the€honorsÐ Ø( Ðhe€has€received€are€the€Organization€of€American€Historiansðð€Louis€Pelzer€Prize,€the€AmericanÏHistorical€Associationððs€Herbert€Feis€Award,€and€the€Southern€Historical€Associationððs€CharlesÏS.€Sydnor€Prize.€Ìà  àMARILYN€B.€YOUNG€is€Professor€of€History€at€New€York€University,€where€she€isÏcurrently€director€of€the€International€Center€for€Advanced€Studies.€€She€serves€on€the€Council€ofÏthe€Society€of€Historians€of€American€Foreign€Policy€and€recently€concluded€a€term€on€theÏCouncil€of€the€American€Historical€Association.€€Her€publications€include€òòRhetoric€of€Empire:Ð l*¼%* ÐAmerican€China€Policy,€1895„1901óó;€òòTransforming€Russia€and€China:€Revolutionary€Struggle€inÐ 8,ˆ', Ðthe€20th€Centuryóó€(with€William€Rosenberg);€and€òòThe€Vietnam€Wars,€1945„1990óó.€€ProfessorÐ ° ÐYoung€has€also€edited€and€co„edited€several€anthologies,€including€òòWomen€in€China:€Essays€onÐ |Ì ÐSocial€Change€and€Feminismóó;€òòPromissory€Notes:€Women€and€the€Transition€to€Socialismóó€(withÐ H˜ ÐRayna€Rapp€and€Sonia€Kruks);€and€òòVietnam€and€Americaóó€(with€Marvin€Gettleman,€Jane€FranklinÐ  d Ðand€Bruce€Franklin).€€She€is€currently€a€recipient€of€a€Guggenheim€fellowship€and€a€fellowshipÏfrom€the€American€Council€of€Learned€Societies€for€work€on€a€book€about€the€Korean€War.€ÏProfessor€Young€has€twice€been€awarded€a€Golden€Dozen€Teaching€Award€and,€from€1993€toÏ1996,€served€as€Chair€of€the€Department€of€History.€€Her€courses€at€New€York€University,€andÏpreviously€at€the€University€of€Michigan,€have€focused€on€the€history€of€U.S.€foreign€policy€withÏparticular€reference€to€Asia,€the€history€of€modern€China,€the€history€and€culture€of€Vietnam,€andÏsocial€change€and€gender.€€She€earned€her€Ph.D.€at€Harvard€University.Ìà  àALAN€TRACHTENBERG€is€Neil€Gray,€Jr.€Professor€of€English€and€American€StudiesÏat€Yale€University.€€His€book,€òòReading€American€Photographs:€Images€as€History,€MatthewÐ @ ÐBrady€to€Walker€Evans,óó€was€awarded€the€Charles€C.€Eldredge€Prize€for€outstanding€scholarshipÐ  \ Ðin€American€art€by€the€Smithsonian€Instituteððs€National€Museum€of€American€Art.€€His€otherÏbooks€include€òòBrooklyn€Bridge:€Fact€and€Symbolóó;€and€òòThe€Incorporation€of€America:€CultureÐ ¤ô Ðand€Society€in€the€Gilded€Ageóó.€€Among€the€books€he€has€edited,€introduced,€or€contributed€to€areÐ p!À  ÐòòDemocratic€Vistas,€1865„1880óó;€òòMemoirs€of€Waldo€Frankóó;€òòAmerica€in€Literatureóó,€Vol.€2;€òòLewisÐ <#Œ" ÐHine€&€Americaóó;€òòThe€American€Imageóó;€òòClassic€Essays€on€Photographyóó;€òòDocumenting€America,Ð %X $ Ð1935„1943óó;€and€òòAmerican€Daguerreotypes€from€the€Matthew€T.€Isenberg€Collectionóó.€€ProfessorÐ Ô&$"& ÐTrachtenberg€was€the€recipient€of€the€International€Center€of€Photography's€Writing€Award€forÏ1991.€€He€has€held€fellowships€from€the€American€Council€of€Learned€Societies,€the€NationalÏEndowment€for€the€Humanities,€the€Rockefeller€Foundation,€and€the€Guggenheim€Foundation.Ð 8,ˆ', ÐHe€taught€at€the€Pennsylvania€State€University€from€1961€to€1968,€and€has€been€a€member€of€theÏYale€faculty€since€1969,€where€he€has€served€as€Chairman€and€Director€of€Graduate€Studies€inÏAmerican€Studies.€€His€visiting€positions€include€Fulbright€professorships€at€Leningrad€StateÏUniversity€and€at€the€Kyoto€American€Studies€Seminar€in€Japan;€the€Caroline€Werner€GannettÏVisiting€Professorship€in€the€Humanities,€Rochester€Institute€of€Technology;€and€a€visitingÏprofessorship€in€the€Science,€Technology,€and€Society€Program,€Massachusetts€Institute€ofÏTechnology.€€He€has€been€a€fellow€of€the€Center€for€Advanced€Study€in€the€Behavioral€Science,ÏPalo€Alto,€California,€and€the€Woodrow€Wilson€Center,€Washington,€D.C.€€In€1992„1993ÏProfessor€Trachtenberg€was€a€Phi€Beta€Kappa€Visiting€Scholar,€and€in€1996€he€held€a€short„termÏfellowship€at€the€Indiana€University€Institute€for€Advanced€Study.€€In€1998„1999,€he€held€theÏTimes€Mirror€Foundation€Distinguished€Fellowship€in€American€Studies€at€the€HuntingtonÏLibrary.€€He€received€his€Ph.D.€in€American€Studies€from€the€University€of€Minnesota.Ìà  àPETER€RACHLEFF€is€Professor€of€History€at€Macalester€College€in€St.€Paul,ÏMinnesota.€€He€is€the€author€of€òòBlack€Labor€in€Richmond,€1865„1890;óó€and€a€contributor€to€theÐ  \ ÐòòEncyclopedia€of€African€American€History€and€Culture;óó€and€òòWe€Are€All€Leaders:€TheÐ Ø( ÐAlternative€Unionism€of€the€Early€1930sóó.€€His€articles€have€appeared€in€such€publications€asÐ ¤ô ÐAmerican€Historical€Review,€Political€Science€Quarterly,€American€Quarterly,€Business€HistoryÏReview,€and€Labor€History.€€His€fields€of€scholarship€include€immigration,€the€industrializationÏof€America,€labor€history,€and€African„American€studies.€€Professor€Rachleff€has€also€taught€atÏHamline€University€and€the€University€of€Minnesota,€and€has€served€on€the€editorial€board€ofÏSocial€Science€History.€€He€is€a€member€of€the€Organization€of€American€Historians€and€theÏLabor€and€Working€Class€History€Association.€€He€earned€his€M.A.€and€Ph.D.€at€the€UniversityÏof€Pittsburgh.Ð 8,ˆ', Ðà  àLAWRENCE€S.€WITTNER€is€Professor€of€History€at€the€State€University€of€New€YorkÏat€Albany.€€He€is€the€author€of€a€number€of€histories,€including€òòOne€World€or€None:€A€History€ofÐ |Ì Ðthe€World€Nuclear€Disarmament€Movement€Through€1953óó€(for€which€he€received€the€Warren€F.Ð H˜ ÐKuehl€Award€from€the€Society€for€Historians€of€American€Foreign€Relations);€òòResisting€theÐ  d ÐBomb:€A€History€of€the€World€Nuclear€Disarmament€Movement€1954„1970óó;€òòAmericanÐ à 0 ÐIntervention€in€Greece,€1943„1949óó;€and€òòRebels€Against€War:€The€American€Peace€MovementÐ ¬ ü  Ð1941„1960óó.€€His€numerous€articles€and€essays€on€American€history€and€American€foreign€policyÐ xÈ  Ðhave€appeared€in€such€journals€as€American€Quarterly,€Pacific€Historical€Review,€andÏDiplomatic€History.€€He€has€presented€scholarly€papers€around€the€world€and€has€been€a€SeniorÏLecturer€in€Japan€under€the€Fulbright€Program.€€Professor€Wittner€has€been€President€of€theÏCouncil€on€Peace€Research€in€History;€a€member€of€the€National€Council€of€the€Society€forÏHistorians€of€American€Foreign€Relations;€and€Chair€of€the€Board€of€Editors€of€Peace€andÏChange:€A€Journal€of€Peace€Research.€€He€has€received€a€number€of€fellowships,€grants,€andÏawards€for€his€research€and€teaching,€including€those€from€the€National€Endowment€for€theÏHumanities;€the€American€Council€of€Learned€Societies/Ford€Foundation,€and€the€AspenÏInstitute.€€Professor€Wittner€received€his€M.A.€from€the€University€of€Wisconsin€and€Ph.D.€fromÏColumbia€University.Ìà  àWILLIAM€R.€TAYLOR€is€former€Program€Director€of€the€New€York€Institute€for€theÏHumanities.€€His€books€include€òòIn€Pursuit€of€Gothamóó;€and€òòCavalier€and€Yankee:€The€Old€SouthÐ %X $ Ðand€American€National€Character.óó€€He€also€edited€òòInventing€Times€Squareóó.€€His€writings€haveÐ Ô&$"& Ðappeared€in€such€publications€as€New€England€Quarterly,€William€and€Mary€Quarterly,€NewÏYork€Review€of€Books,€and€Skyline:€The€Architecture€and€Design€Review.€€Mr.€Taylor€has€beenÏa€fellow€of€London€University's€Institute€for€Historical€Research€and€a€Ô_ÔNewberryÔ_Ô€LibraryÐ 8,ˆ', ÐCarnegie€Fellow.€€He€has€served€on€the€Bancroft€Prize€committee€and€has€been€a€consultant€toÏthe€Ford€Foundation,€the€National€Endowment€for€the€Humanities,€and€the€Mellon€Foundation.€ÏHe€has€taught€at€Harvard€University,€the€University€of€Wisconsin,€the€University€of€Chicago,€andÏthe€State€University€of€New€York€at€Stony€Brook.€€He€received€his€M.A.€and€Ph.D.€from€HarvardÏUniversity.Ìà  àDAVID€L.€SCHALK€is€William€R.€Kenan€Professor€of€History€at€Vassar€College,€whereÏhe€teaches€modern€European€history€and€European€intellectual€history.€€His€works€include€òòRogerÐ xÈ  ÐMartin€du€Gard:€The€Novelist€and€Historyóó;€òòThe€Spectrum€of€Political€Engagementóó€(which€wasÐ D”  Ðnominated€for€the€Pulitzer€Prize);€and€òòWar€and€the€Ivory€Tower:€Algeria€and€Vietnamóó.€€He€hasÐ ` Ðpublished€numerous€scholarly€articles€over€the€years€in€such€journals€as€Journal€of€SocialÏHistory,€French€Historical€Studies€(where€he€also€served€as€editor),€The€Tocqueville€Review,€LesÏÔ_ÔCahiersÔ_Ô€de€lððInstitut€dððHistoire€du€Temps€Present,€Journal€of€European€Studies,€and€HistoricalÏReflections/Ô_ÔReflexionsÔ_Ô€Ô_ÔHistoriquesÔ_Ô€(where€he€was€later€appointed€to€the€editorial€board).€€He€hasÏlectured€throughout€the€United€States€and€Europe.€€Professor€Schalk€received€his€M.A.€and€Ph.D.Ïfrom€Harvard€University.Ìà  àThe€òòamicióó€represented€herein€are€professional€historians€who€do€original€research€withÐ ¤ô Ðprimary€sources€to€write€peer„reviewed€articles€and€monographs€on€topics€of€history.€€AsÏprofessional€historians,€they€are€concerned€that€the€Brief€òòAmicióó€òòCuriaeóó€submitted€by€Ken€Burns,Ð <#Œ" Ðòòet€alóó.€in€support€of€petitioners€does€not€accurately€portray€how€historians€practice€their€craft€orÐ %X $ Ðhow€they€use€newspapers€and€periodicals.€€The€historians€herein€believe€that€the€Court€willÏbenefit€from€a€description€of€how€historians€conduct€their€research,€how€they€use€a€variety€ofÏsources€as€evidence,€and€how€they€see€the€use€of€commercial€electronic€databases€for€historicalÏresearch.Ð 8,ˆ', ЇÓ  ÓSUMMARY€OF€Ô_ÔARGUMENTñÈñÌñÈñÔ_ÔÌÓ  Óà  àContrary€to€the€impression€given€by€the€Burns€òòamicióó,€professional€historians€do€not€viewÐ |Ì Ðnewspapers€and€magazines€as€the€most€important€source€for€their€work,€nor€have€the€commercialÏdatabases€of€newspapers€and€magazines€played€a€central€role€in€their€research.€€Historians€areÏgenerally€apt€to€rely€more€on€other€primary€sources€such€as€diaries,€letters,€memoirs,€interviews,Ïgovernment€records,€maps,€artwork,€and€literature.€€Indeed,€a€review€of€recent€books€by€BurnsÏòòamicióó€Doris€Kearns€Goodwin€and€David€Ô_ÔMcCulloughÔ_Ô€show€that€their€own€historical€writingÐ xÈ  Ðrelies€on€the€whole€range€of€available€source€materials.€€No€serious€historian€would€present€aÏwork€based€primarily€on€contemporaneous€news€accounts.Ìà  àMoreover,€since€their€coverage€only€extends€back€some€twenty€years€at€best,€theÏcommercial€databases€have€so€far€been€of€marginal€value€to€historians.€€Such€databases€were€inÏfact€designed€to€provide€easy€access€to€stories€and€documents€needed€by€active€players€in€theÏnationððs€economic€and€public€life,€and€are€not€maintained€with€the€needs€of€scholars€in€mind.€ÏHistorians€are€more€likely€to€need€to€see€the€newspapers€in€their€original€form,€as€experienced€byÏthe€contemporaneous€readers,€to€appreciate€the€significance€and€meaning€of€the€informationÏcontained€in€them.Ìà  àVirtually€all€of€the€available€literature€contradicts€the€Burns€òòamiciððsóó€view€that€computerÐ p!À  Ðdatabases€are€the€only€means€to€preserve€the€historical€memory€contained€in€newspapers€andÏperiodicals.€€The€rapid€changes€in€hardware€and€software,€coupled€with€the€fragility€of€theÏstorage€medium,€make€computer€databases€obsolete€and€unreadable€within€a€few€short€years.€€AsÏâ âone€researcher€in€the€field€puts€it,€ð ðThe€vision€of€creating€digital€libraries€that€will€be€able€toÐ  (ð#( Ðpreserve€our€heritage€currently€rests€on€technological€quicksand.ðð׃×Ý ƒ*#ÃÝòòÚ  Ú2Ú  ÚóóÝ  Ý×  ×€€The€result€is€that€the€originalÐ ° Ðâ ânewspapers€and€magazines€will€be€available€to€scholars€long€after€most€of€the€present€databasesÏbecome€indecipherable.Ìà  àÔ_ÔAffirmanceÔ_Ô€of€the€Second€Circuit€judgment€will€not€result€in€a€ð ðblack€holeðð€in€theÏhistorical€record.€€Based€on€petitionersðð€figures,€the€case€involves€approximately€0.0036%€of€theÏ2.8€billion€documents€available€on€the€Ô_ÔNexisÔ_Ô€service.€€There€is€no€basis€for€assuming€that€theÏrelief€to€be€granted€in€this€case,€or€in€a€class€action€following€the€Second€Circuit€ruling,€wouldÏrequire€deletion€of€the€freelance€authorsðð€contributions.€€It€is€just€as€likely€that€additionalÏcompensation€to€the€freelance€writers€for€the€past€infringements€will€be€ordered€based€on€aÏformula€or€set€of€criteria€that€can€be€efficiently€administered.€€Even€if€the€contributions€ofÏfreelance€writers€disappeared€from€the€commercial€databases,€the€articles€in€question€would€stillÏbe€indexed€and€available€as€necessary€in€hard€copy€to€historians.€€They€are€ð ðlost€to€historyðð€onlyÏif€one€assumes€that€a€historian€is€limited€by€what€is€passively€available€on€the€computer€screen.Ìà  àThere€are,€to€be€sure,€serious€problems€with€the€nationððs€archives,€and€the€Burns€òòamicióó€areÐ  \ Ðcertainly€right€to€be€concerned€with€the€preservation€of€historical€records.€€However,€the€answerÏto€preserving€archives€is€to€allocate€the€money€and€resources€necessary€to€the€task,€not€toÏsacrifice€the€legal€rights€of€freelance€writers€to€this€supposed€greater€good.€€Should€theÏdefendants€in€this€case€prevail,€it€could€cause€grave€damage€to€the€role€of€independent€writers€inÏsociety.€€The€inability€to€earn€any€more€than€their€one„time€fee€for€their€original€work,€no€matterÏhow€popular€the€article€might€become€in€the€digital€archives,€may€cause€freelance€writers€to€stopÐ Ô&$"& Ðwriting.€€The€irony€of€the€position€taken€by€the€Burns€òòamicióó€is€that€they€regard€the€potential€lossÐ ° Ðof€past€materials€by€freelance€writers€as€causing€ð ðinestimableðð€damage€to€historians€„€yet€theyÏsupport€an€outcome€that€will€help€extinguish€those€same€voices€in€the€future.€€For€these€reasons,Ïthe€arguments€of€the€Burns€òòamicióó€do€not€provide€any€basis€for€reversing€the€Second€CircuitððsÐ  d Ðjudgment.ÌÓ  ÓARGUMENTÌÓphÓà  àThe€Burns€òòamicióó€express€concern€that€the€Second€Circuitððs€decision€ð ðwill€haveÐ xÈ  Ðunexpected,€unprecedented,€and€irreversible€consequences€for€the€integrity€and€accessibility€ofÏthe€historical€record€and€the€progress€of€historical€scholarship.ðð€€òòóóBurns€br.€at€4.€€According€toÐ ` Ðthem,€newspaper€and€periodical€databases€have€become€ð ðan€irreplaceable€and€priceless€resourceððÏbecause€of€the€way€in€which€they€simplify€the€tasks€of€researchers.€€òòIdóó.€at€5.€€Because€theÐ ¨ø Ðdatabases€supposedly€possess€such€obvious€advantages€over€the€paper„printed€newspapers€andÏperiodicals,€libraries€and€other€archival€institutions€have€focused€on€maintaining€electronicÏcompilations€of€these€publications,€to€the€exclusion€of€the€original€publications.€€òòIdóó.€at€5„6.€€IfÐ  \ Ðdefendants€are€required€to€actually€pay€plaintiffs€for€this€new€electronic€publication€of€their€work,Ïthe€Burns€òòamicióó€believe€that€the€original€publishers€will€simply€delete€the€contributions€ofÐ ¤ô Ðfreelance€writers€from€the€databases€rather€than€attempt€to€obtain€consent€after€the€fact€and€payÏfair€compensation.€€The€original€articles€will€therefore€be€lost€to€history.Ìà  àAs€shown€below,€most€of€these€assumptions€are€wrong.€€Commercial€databases€ofÏnewspapers€and€periodical€stories€have€not€been€critical€to€historians,€although€such€databasesÏmay€be€very€useful€to€business€leaders,€political€commentators,€and€lawyers.€€Even€whenÏrelevant,€such€databases€do€not€eliminate€the€need€for€historians€to€seek€other,€generally€moreÏimportant€primary€sources.€€Further,€the€assertion€that€a€victory€for€the€plaintiffs€willÐ 8,ˆ', Ðautomatically€result€in€the€removal€of€the€stories€from€the€databases€seems€both€extreme€andÏunlikely.€€Finally,€even€if€they€will€be€harder€to€read,€the€articles€are€not€going€to€disappear€fromÏhistory,€because€commercial€databases€are€unlikely€to€be€the€primary€record€of€todayððsÏnewspapers€and€periodicals.ÌÓÓà  àI.à0 ` àTHE€HISTORIANSðð€CRAFT€DOES€NOT€DEPEND€ON€ACCESS€TOÐ à 0 ÐCOMMERCIAL€ELECTRONIC€DATABASES.Ð ` (#` (# ÐÌÓ¥pÓà  àThe€brief€of€the€Burns€òòamicióó€rests€primarily€on€the€fundamental€misconception€that€theÐ ’â  Ðhistorical€record€is€largely€contained€only€in€commercial€computer€databases,€and€that€historiansÏrely€substantially€on€such€commercial€databases.€€As€discussed€below,€newspaper€and€magazineÏarticles€are€not€usually€the€primary€emphasis€in€historical€research,€which€is€concerned€with€aÏmuch€larger€universe€of€primary€sources׃!×Ý ƒ*#ÃÝòòÚ  Ú3Ú  ÚóóÝ  Ý×  ×€that€provide€direct€evidence€about€the€past.€€While€theÐ Â Ðability€to€quickly€search€commercial€databases€is€a€time„saver€and€can€be€a€powerful€researchÏtool,€the€usefulness€of€such€databases€is€limited€by€the€relatively€tiny€number€of€historicallyÏsignificant€documents€which€appear€in€commercial€databases,€and€by€the€fact€that€newspaperÏarticles€are€generally€not€the€most€critical€source.ÌÓÓà  àà ` àA.à0 ¸ àNewspaper€and€Magazine€Articles€Are€Only€One€Among€Many€SourcesÐ ¾ ÐFor€Historical€Research.ÓuÓÐ ¸ (#¸ (# Ðà  àProfessional€historians€conduct€a€disciplined€investigation€of€the€facts€of€the€past€with€aÏview€toward€interpreting€(or€re„interpreting)€past€human€events.€€Writing€history€is€really€ð ðanÏunending€dialogue€between€the€present€and€the€past.ðð€€E.H.€Carr,€òòWhat€is€Historyóó€at€35€(1962).׃?ô×Ý ƒ*#ÃÝòòÚ  Ú4Ú  ÚóóÝ  Ý×  ×€€Ð %X $ ÐThe€credibility€of€any€such€historical€interpretation,€however,€depends€on€setting€forth€reliableÏand€verifiable€facts€about€the€events€in€question.€€Just€as€a€litigatorððs€closing€argument€to€the€juryÏmust€rely€on€evidence€admitted€at€trial€according€to€the€rules€of€evidence,€so€the€professionalÏhistorian€must€rely€on€the€kind€of€evidence€generally€considered€reliable€and€probative€within€theÏprofession.Ìà  àThe€brief€of€the€Burns€òòamicióó€gives€the€wholly€erroneous€impression€that€central€to€theÐ ¬ ü  Ðhistorianððs€work€are€the€facts€which€can€be€gleaned€from€newspaper€and€magazine€articles.€ÏNothing€could€be€further€from€the€truth.€€ð ðThe€variety€of€historical€evidence€is€nearly€infinite.€ÏEverything€that€man€says€or€writes,€everything€that€he€makes,€everything€he€touches€can€andÏought€to€teach€us€about€him.ðð€€Marc€Bloch,€òòThe€Historian's€Craftóó€at€66€(1953).€€WhileÐ Ü, Ðcontemporary€journalistic€accounts€can€provide€a€starting€point€for€historians€in€examining€aÏcertain€era€or€certain€types€of€events€and€can€provide€vivid€details€to€be€incorporated€into€theÏfinal€narrative,€no€professional€historian€would€give€automatic€priority€to€such€evidence.€€TheÏcritical€factual€data€of€the€past€is€to€be€found€in€many€other€primary€sources:€diaries,€privateÏcorrespondence,€memoirs,€interviews,€transcripts€of€government€proceedings,€governmentÏarchives,€private€or€corporate€archives,€accounting€records,€tax€receipts,€economic€statisticalÏtables,€maps,€photographs,€movies,€literature,€works€of€art,€audio€tapes,€medical€reports,€even€siteÏvisits€to€the€place€of€critical€events€„€the€list€is€inexhaustible.Ô_Ô׃F×Ý ƒ*#ÃÝòòÚ  Ú5Ú  ÚóóÝ  Ý×  ×Ô_Ô€€Any€professional€historian€whoÐ <#Œ" Ðpresented€a€monograph€principally€relying€upon€facts€derived€from€contemporary€newspapersÏwould€be€justly€derided€by€his€or€her€colleagues.€€Journalism€has€often€been€described€as€the€firstÐ Ô&$"& Ðdraft€of€history€„€but€no€historian€would€confuse€a€first€draft€with€the€final€product.Ìà  àAlthough€the€brief€of€the€Burns€òòamicióó€stresses€the€primacy€of€newspaper€stories€in€writingÐ |Ì Ðhistory,€the€books€by€the€same€historians€òòóódo€not€support€that€assertion.€€The€historical€works€byÐ H˜ ÐDoris€Kearns€Goodwin,€David€McCullough,€and€others€follow€the€dictates€of€the€profession€byÏrelying€on€a€careful€review€of€all€of€the€primary€sources,€with€an€emphasis€on€the€disciplinedÏreview€of€unpublished€sources€found€in€archives.Ô_Ô׃L×Ý ƒ*#ÃÝòòÚ  Ú6Ú  ÚóóÝ  Ý×  ×Ô_ÔÐ ¬ ü  Ðà  àFor€example,€in€her€Pulitzer€Prize„winning€history€of€Franklin€and€Eleanor€Roosevelt,€òòNoÐ xÈ  ÐOrdinary€Timeóó€(1994),€Ms.€Goodwin€wrote€that€the€700„page€book€ð ðrelies€predominantly€upon€aÐ D”  Ðmultitude€of€primary€materials:€manuscript€collections,€memoranda,€private€letters,€diaries,Ïmemoirs,€office€files,€world€histories,€pamphlets,€newspapers,€periodicals,€personal€interviews.ððÏòòIdóó.,€ð ðA€Note€on€Sources,ðð€at€637.€€These€primary€materials€included€the€White€House€UsherÐ ¨ø ÐDiaries,€which€provided€ð ðday„by„day,€even€minute„by„minute€chronologies€[that€revealed]€whenÏPresident€and€the€First€Lady€awakened,€who€joined€them€for€meals€and€meetings,€how€much€timeÏspent€with€each€visitor,€where€they€went€during€the€day,€when€they€went€to€bed€at€night.ðð€€òòIdóó.€atÐ  \ Ð637.€€She€added,€ð ðI€treasure€the€details€that€emerged€from€these€primary€sources.€.€.€.ðð€€òòIdóó.€€Ms.Ð Ø( ÐGoodwin€also€conducted€86€interviews.€€òòIdóó.€at€638„39.€While€she€added€that€ð ðsome€of€myÐ ¤ô Ðfavorite€details€came€from€the€press€reports€of€the€time,ðð€it€is€clear€from€her€description€that€sheÏis€referring€to€factual€details€from€news€stories,€not€the€occasional€opinion€piece€that€might€haveÐ <#Œ" Ðbeen€penned€by€a€freelance€writer.€€òòSee€id.óó€at€638.Ð ° Ðà  àDavid€McCulloughððs€Pulitzer€Prize„winning€biography,€òòTrumanóó€(1992),€similarly€reliesÐ |Ì Ðon€a€wealth€of€primary€research,€not€simply€the€reading€of€computerized€news€articles.€€ThisÏ1000„page€biography€of€the€former€President€contains€58€pages€of€footnotes€and€24€pages€ofÏbibliography.€€Mr.€McCulloughððs€research€included€125€interviews€conducted€by€the€author€andÏanother€66€transcripts€from€oral€history€projects.€€He€made€extensive€use€of€the€manuscriptÏcollections€at€the€Truman€library,€the€unpublished€papers€from€a€number€of€other€archives,Ïpublished€government€documents,€memoirs,€and€relevant€histories€of€the€era.€€Indeed,€in€hisÏacknowledgments,€Mr.€McCullough€noted€that€he€personally€retraced€the€steps€of€PresidentÏTruman's€run€through€the€capital€building€on€the€ð ðfateful€eveningðð€of€April€12,€1945.€€òòIdóó.€at€994.Ð Ü, ÐThe€author€supplemented€these€sources€with€citations€from€a€number€of€newspapers,€magazinesÏand€journals€of€the€period.Ìà  àThe€examples€cited€above€further€demonstrate€how€commercial€databases€of€newspaperÏarticles€are€peripheral€to€the€work€of€historians.€€These€works€are€all€essentially€modern€histories.€ÏNevertheless,€virtually€none€of€the€events€described€in€the€books€would€be€covered€by€newsÏarticles€contained€in€the€databases€of€defendant€Lexis„Nexis,€because€the€commercial€databasesÏdo€not€cover€any€period€except€the€last€20€years,€at€best.׃R×Ý ƒ*#ÃÝòòÚ  Ú7Ú  ÚóóÝ  Ý×  ×€€Any€historian€writing€about€eventsÐ p!À  Ðprior€to€around€1977€would€find€the€commercial€databases€of€newspaper€articles€useless.Ìà  àThe€limited€usefulness€of€commercial€databases€to€historians€is€not€surprising,€since€suchÏdatabases€were€designed€to€provide€a€different€service€to€a€different€audience.€€Databases€likeÐ Ô&$"& ÐNexis€are€designed€to€provide€quick€and€easy€access€to€documents€which€will€have€relevance€toÏactive€players€in€the€nationððs€economic€life,€public€affairs,€and€legal€profession.€€They€are€heavilyÏweighted€toward€corporate€and€financial€news,€court€cases,€governmental€rules€and€decisions,Ïand€world€affairs€which€impact€the€global€economy.€€Such€databases€allow€busy€corporateÏexecutives,€political€commentators,€and€news€analysts€to€quickly€obtain€a€superficial€familiarityÏwith€virtually€any€topic€of€current€relevance.€€However,€historians,€when€they€are€acting€in€theirÏprofessional€roles,€generally€need€documents€that€are€of€peripheral€or€no€concern€toÏcontemporary€managers,€and€that€are€unlikely€to€have€been€included€in€commercial€databases.ÏThe€Burns€òòamicióó€refer€to€themselves€as€ð ðhistorians,€political€commentators€and€authors,ðð€BurnsÐ ` Ðbr.€at€3,€without€any€apparent€recognition€that€their€research€needs€and€the€sources€they€use€mayÏbe€very€different€depending€upon€what€role€they€are€filling.׃Y×Ý ƒ*#ÃÝòòÚ  Ú8Ú  ÚóóÝ  Ý×  ×Ð ¨ø Ðà  àTo€be€sure,€the€ability€to€search€text€using€key€words€is€a€welcome€tool€for€researchersÏ(although€hardly€a€panacea€for€the€difficulties€of€careful€research).€€Moreover,€there€areÏpromising€developments€in€making€certain€historical€archives€„€or€at€least€portions€thereof€„Ïavailable€to€historians€in€digital€format,€primarily€over€the€Internet.׃_Ú×Ý ƒ*#ÃÝòòÚ  Ú9Ú  ÚóóÝ  Ý×  ×€€Such€increased€access€toÐ Ø( Ðcertain€primary€sources€will€assist€historians€and€students€of€history,׃:T ×Ý ƒ*#ÃÝòòÚ  Ú10Ú  ÚóóÝ  Ý×  ×€but€it€is€highly€unlikelyÐ ¤ô Ðthat€such€digital€archives€will€include€the€entire€universe€of€archived€documents,€that€they€willÏreplace€the€original€documents€in€question,€or€that€historians€will€no€longer€need€to€visit€theÏrelevant€archives€in€person€to€inspect€their€collections.€€Using€electronic€databases€to€increaseÏaccess€to€primary€sources€is€not€the€same€as€replacing€those€primary€sources€with€electronicÏversions.€€Moreover,€such€free€access€to€electronic€archives€established€by€public€and€privateÏnonprofit€entities€does€not€affect€the€issues€raised€by€this€case€or€the€points€raised€by€the€BurnsÏòòamicióó,€which€are€focused€on€the€legal€rights€of€authors€in€copyrighted€articles€appearing€inÐ xÈ  Ðcommercial€databases.Ìà  àThus,€the€Burns€òòamicióó€have€overstated€the€advantages€of€having€newspaper€and€magazineÐ ` Ðarticles€in€electronic€databases.€€Because€they€are€created€for€purposes€other€than€historicalÏresearch,€the€databases€are€likely€to€cover,€at€best,€only€part€of€the€published€material€to€beÏinvestigated.€€The€work€of€the€Burns€òòamicióó€demonstrates€what€the€òòamicióó€herein€have€found€inÐ tÄ Ðtheir€own€work,€there€is€no€short„cut€to€historical€inquiry.€€Newspaper€and€magazine€articles€areÏonly€one€part€of€a€much€larger€puzzle.ÌÓÓà  àà ` àB.à0 ¸ àThe€Methodology€of€Historians€Is€Not€Based€on€Using€IndividualÐ Ø( ÐNewspaper€and€Magazine€Articles€as€Essential€Building€Blocks.Ð ¸ (#¸ (# ÐÌÓ‘›Óà  àA€related€misconception€in€the€Burns€òòamicióó€brief€concerns€how€historians€work.€€TheyÐ Š Ú Ðcite€comments€from€historian€Douglas€Ô_ÔBrinkleyÔ_Ô€during€a€panel€discussion€to€the€effect€that€theÏhistorian€or€biographer€obtains€a€first€draft€of€the€work€by€pulling€all€the€individual€newspaperÏarticles€about€the€subject€and€filing€them€chronologically.€€Supposedly,€the€author€then€ð ðÔ_Ôfill[sÔ_Ô]Ïthat€inðð€with€interviews,€documentary€evidence,€and€some€other€ð ðobvious€books€or€articles.ðð€ÏBurns€br.€at€17.€€One€suspects€that€the€brief€has€oversimplified€Mr.€Brinkleyððs€views,€and€thatÐ †)Ö$) ÐMr.€Brinkley€himself€does€not€actually€work€in€this€way.€€It€is€certain€that€most€professionalÏhistorians€engage€in€a€much€different,€and€more€complicated€approach€to€their€writing.Ìà  àDescribing€the€work€of€the€historian,€E.H.€Carr€wrote:ÌÓÓà8  àà8` Ð Ð àLaymen€„€that€is€to€say,€non„academic€friends€or€friends€from€otherÏacademic€disciplines€„€sometimes€ask€me€how€the€historian€goes€toÏwork€when€he€writes€history.€€The€commonest€assumption€appearsÏto€be€that€the€historian€divides€his€work€into€two€sharplyÏdistinguishable€phases€or€periods.€€First,€he€spends€a€longÏpreliminary€period€reading€his€sources€and€filling€his€notebooksÏwith€facts;€then,€when€this€is€over,€he€puts€away€his€sources,€takesÏout€his€notebooks,€and€writes€his€book€from€beginning€to€end.€ÏThis€is€to€me€an€unconvincing€and€unplausible€picture.Ð ` x` x ÐÌÓ> ÓCarr€at€32„33.€€Professor€Carr€continued:ÌÓÓà8  àà8` Ð Ð àI€am€convinced€that,€for€any€historian€worth€the€name,€the€twoÏprocesses€of€what€economists€call€ð ðinputðð€and€ð ðoutputðð€go€onÏsimultaneously€and€are,€in€practice,€parts€of€a€single€process.€€IfÏyou€try€to€separate€them,€or€give€one€priority€over€the€other,€youÏfall€into€one€of€two€heresies.€€Either€you€write€scissors„and„pasteÏhistory€without€meaning€or€significance;€or€you€write€propagandaÏor€historical€fiction,€and€merely€use€facts€of€the€past€to€embroider€aÏkind€of€writing€which€has€nothing€to€do€with€history.Ð ` x` x ÐÌòòIdóó.€at€33.€€Marc€Bloch€asserted€a€similar€point:Ð òB ÐÓÿ¢ÓÓÓÌà8  àà8` Ð Ð àMany€people€and,€it€appears,€even€some€authors€of€manualsÏentertain€an€extraordinarily€simplified€notion€of€our€workingÏprocedure.€€First,€as€they€are€only€too€eager€to€tell€you,€there€areÏthe€documents.€€The€historian€collects€them,€reads€them,€attemptsÏto€weigh€their€authenticity€and€truthfulness.€€Then,€and€only€then,Ïhe€makes€use€of€them.€€There€is€only€one€trouble€with€this€idea:€noÏhistorian€has€ever€worked€in€such€a€way,€even€when,€by€someÏcaprice,€he€fancied€that€he€was€doing€so.Ð ` x` x ÐÌà8  àà8` Ð Ð àFor€even€those€texts€or€archeological€documents€which€seem€theÏclearest€and€the€most€accommodating€will€speak€only€when€theyÏare€properly€questioned.€.€.€.€€Mere€passive€observation,€evenÏsupposing€such€a€thing€were€possible,€has€never€contributedÏanything€productive€to€any€science.Ð ` x` x Ðâ âÐ R+¢&+ ÐÓº¥ÓBloch€at€64„65.׃d×Ý ƒ*#ÃÝòòÚ  Ú11Ú  ÚóóÝ  Ý×  ×Ð ° Ðâ âà  àThe€Burns€òòamicióó€make€the€further€erroneous€assumption€that€ð ðthe€focal€point€of€researchÐ |Ì Ðhas€always€been,€and€will€always€be,€the€retrieval€of€individual€articles.€.€.€.ðð€€Burns€br.€at€16.ÏAccording€to€them,€it€is€unnecessary€to€ever€see€the€original€publication.€€While€access€to€theÏpure€text€alone€is€sometimes€enough,€professional€historians€are€frequently€concerned€not€justÏwith€the€information€in€the€article,€but€with€the€significance€of€the€articleððs€publication€and€howÏthe€article€was€experienced€by€the€readers€at€the€time.€€Judgments€about€the€meaning€of€theÏarticle€often€depend€on€seeing€the€original€article,€noting€where€the€article€appears€in€theÏpublication,€what€kind€of€headline€it€carried,€whether€it€was€accompanied€by€an€illustration€andÏwhat€it€was,€and€whether€there€were€companion€articles.׃j×Ý ƒ*#ÃÝòòÚ  Ú12Ú  ÚóóÝ  Ý×  ×€€As€one€researcher€of€library€scienceÐ Ü, Ðreported,€ð ðWhat€has€emerged€clearly€.€.€.€is€the€unchanging€desire€for€scholars€to€work€withÏoriginal,€unformatted,€primary€source€materials,€from€paper€manuscripts€to€vintage€photographs€.Ï.€.€.ðð׃×Ý ƒ*#ÃÝòòÚ  Ú13Ú  ÚóóÝ  Ý×  ×€€Indeed,€depending€upon€the€focus€of€the€investigation,€the€historian€may€be€moreÐ @ Ðinterested€in€the€newspaper€or€magazine€as€an€organic€whole€and€must€be€able€to€read€theÐ  \ Ðpublication€in€its€entirety€and€in€its€original€format.Ô_Ô׃q×Ý ƒ*#ÃÝòòÚ  Ú14Ú  ÚóóÝ  Ý×  ×Ô_Ô€€€Such€context€becomes€even€moreÐ ° Ðimportant€where€historians€move€from€the€more€traditional€political€histories€and€attempt€to€writeÏa€social€history€of€a€period€or€place.€€None€of€this€analysis€is€possible€in€the€commercialÏdatabases,€which€contain€only€the€most€rudimentary€notations€of€page€number€and€exclude€allÏpictures,€photographs,€maps,€tables,€cartoons,€death€notices,€and€advertisements.€€òòÔ_ÔTasiniÔ_Ô€v.€TheÐ à 0 ÐNew€York€Times€Co.,€Inc.óó,€206€F.3d€161,€164€(2d€Cir.€2000).€€To€a€social€historian,€theÐ ¬ ü  Ðadvertisements€alone€in€a€newspaper€provide€a€wealth€of€information€about€how€a€group€ofÏpeople€lived€their€lives.׃wô×Ý ƒ*#ÃÝòòÚ  Ú15Ú  ÚóóÝ  Ý×  ×Ð D”  Ðà  àFinally,€even€if€an€individual€historian€was€inclined€to€work€in€the€manner€suggested€byÏMr.€Ô_ÔBrinkleyÔ_Ô,€the€Second€Circuit€decision€would€have€no€effect€on€him€or€her.€€The€ð ðbuildingÏblocksðð€for€the€chronology€„€news€stories€and€editorials,€would€still€be€readily€available€in€theÏcommercial€databases.€€Thus,€there€is€nothing€about€the€work€process€or€methodology€ofÏhistorians€which€would€support€the€defendantsðð€position€in€this€case.ÌÓÓà  àà ` àC.à0 ¸ àThe€Burns€òòAmicióó€Overstate€the€Importance€of€Commercial€Databases€toÐ  \ Ðthe€Preservation€of€the€Historical€Record.Ð ¸ (#¸ (# ÐÌÓ¢µÓà  àAn€essential€misconception€underlying€the€argument€of€the€Burns€òòamicióó€is€that€books,Ð ¾ Ðnewspapers€and€magazines€as€originally€published€are€ephemeral€objects€which€will€quicklyÐ Š Ú Ðbecome€unavailable€to€historians.€€Although€the€commercial€databases€are€too€recent€to€haveÏimpacted€much€historical€work€to€date,€the€Burns€òòamicióó€are€apparently€concerned€about€theÐ |Ì Ðintegrity€of€those€databases€for€future€historians€studying€our€time.€€According€to€the€BurnsÏòòamicióó,€documents€of€the€past€will€live€eternally€only€if€they€become€digital.€€Burns€br.€at€9„11.€Ð  d ÐHowever,€many€scholars€and€archivists€are€finding€that€the€opposite€is€true:€that€theÏtransformation€of€our€records€of€the€past€into€a€new€medium€will€more€likely€lead€to€the€loss€ofÏthese€records.Ô_Ô׃A×Ý ƒ*#ÃÝòòÚ  Ú16Ú  ÚóóÝ  Ý×  ×Ô_Ô€€ð ðThe€vision€of€creating€digital€libraries€that€will€be€able€to€preserve€our€heritageÐ xÈ  Ðcurrently€rests€on€technological€quicksand.ðð€€Ô_ÔRothenbergÔ_Ô,€òòQuicksandóó€at€1.€€It€now€appears€thatÐ D”  Ðcomputer€databases€may€have€an€even€shorter€Ô_ÔlifespanÔ_Ô€than€newsprint.€€As€one€task€force€in€theÏfield€concluded:ÌÓÓà8  àà8` Ð Ð àRapid€changes€in€the€means€of€recording€information,€in€theÏformats€for€storage,€and€in€the€technologies€for€use€threaten€toÏrender€the€life€of€information€in€the€digital€age€as,€to€borrow€aÏphrase€from€Hobbes,€ð ðnasty,€brutish€and€short.ðð׃Œ ×Ý ƒ*#ÃÝòòÚ  Ú17Ú  ÚóóÝ  Ý×  ×Ó÷»ÓÐZª` x` x Ðà  àThe€constant€transformation€of€technology€often€means€that€the€hardware€and€softwareÏnecessary€to€read€the€previously€encoded€electronic€database€shortly€becomes€unavailable.Ô_Ô׃: ×Ý ƒ*#ÃÝòòÚ  Ú18Ú  ÚóóÝ  Ý×  ×Ô_Ô€€AÐ òB Ðspecial€committee€examining€the€future€of€the€Library€of€Congress€has€noted:ÌÓÓà8  àà8` Ð Ð àDigital€materials€are€especially€vulnerable€to€loss€and€destructionÏbecause€they€are€stored€on€fragile€magnetic€and€optical€media€thatÏdeteriorate€rapidly€and€that€can€fail€suddenly€from€exposure€toÏheat,€humidity,€airborne€contaminants,€faulty€reading€and€writingÏdevices,€human€error,€and€even€sabotage.Ð ` x` x ÐÌà8  àà8` Ð Ð àDigital€materials€become€unreadable€and€inaccessible€if€theÏplayback€devices€necessary€to€retrieve€information€from€the€mediaÏbecome€obsolete€or€if€the€software€that€translates€digitalÏinformation€from€machine„€to€human„readable€form€is€no€longerÏavailable.Ó9¿Óà8` x` xàà8hÈÈàÐxÈ hphp ÐCommittee€on€an€Information€Technology€Strategy€for€the€Library€of€Congress,€òòLC21:€A€DigitalÐ D”  ÐStrategy€for€the€Library€of€Congressóó€at€4„2€(2000)€(citation€omitted).€€A€journalist€examining€theÐ ` Ðproblems€at€the€National€Archives€concluded,€ð ðThe€problem€of€technological€obsolescence€„€ofÏfading€words€and€images€locked€in€odd„looking,€out„of„date€equipment€„€is€an€even€biggerÏproblem€for€the€computer€age€than€it€was€for€the€media€produced€in€the€first€half€of€the€century.ðð€ÏAlexander€Ô_ÔStilleÔ_Ô,€òòOverloadóó,€New€Yorker€at€38€(March€8,€1999).׃‚v×Ý ƒ*#ÃÝòòÚ  Ú19Ú  ÚóóÝ  Ý×  ×€€A€prominent€libraryÐ @ Ðpreservationist€described€the€problem€this€way:€ð ðWe€all€know€that€we€donððt€òòdecreaseóó€theÐ  \ Ðâ âpreservation€problem€by€relying€on€digital€information,€we€only€òòincreaseóó€it.€€As€[oneÐ Ø( Ðpreservationist]€put€it,€ððbeing€digital€means€being€ephemeral.ðððð€(emphasis€in€original).ñ«ññÉñ׃ˆ×ñÉññÉñ׃×ñÉññ«ññ«ñ׃ ×ñ«ñÝ ƒ*#ÃÝòòÚ  Ú20Ú  ÚóóÝ  Ý×  ×Ð ° Ðâ âà  àThe€Burns€òòamicióó€further€ignore€the€problem€of€errors€and€data€corruption€which€occurÐ |Ì Ðwhenever€data€is€converted€from€one€medium€to€another.€€òòSeeóó€Ô_ÔRothenbergÔ_Ô,€òòQuicksandóó,€at€13„14;Ð H˜ ÐRichard€H.€Ô_ÔEckmanÔ_Ô,€òòCan€Libraries€of€Digital€Materials€Last€Forever?óó,€Change€at€24Ð  d Ð(March/April€2000).€€This€is€true€of€newspapers€as€well.€€A€four„month€study€at€the€University€ofÏNorth€Carolina€by€the€editor€of€the€Internet€version€of€the€Arkansas€Democrat„Gazette€foundÏnumerous€discrepancies€between€the€contents€of€the€newspapers€as€published€on€paper€and€theÏeditions€made€available€on€commercial€databases.€€In€one€case,€a€defamatory€reference€to€aÏpublic€figure€was€pulled€just€before€press€time€from€the€printed€paper,€but€made€its€way€online€inÏthe€Lexis„Ô_ÔNexisÔ_Ô€database.€€Bruce€William€Ô_ÔOakleyÔ_Ô,€òòHow€Accurate€Are€Your€Archives?óó,€ñªñòòñªñColumbiaÐ Ü, ÐJournalism€Reviewñªñóóñªñ€at€13€(March/April€1998).ñ¿ñÔ_Ô׃¼×ñ¿ññ¿ñ׃/¼×ñ¿ñÝ ƒ*#ÃÝòòÚ  Ú21Ú  ÚóóÝ  Ý×  ×Ô_ÔÐ ¨ø Ðà  àEven€if€it€were€desirable,€the€creation€of€electronic€versions€of€newspapers€and€magazinesÏdoes€not€solve€the€problem€of€historical€memory,€but€creates€new€problems.€€There€is€noÏguarantee€that€electronic€databases,€commercial€or€otherwise,€will€adequately€preserveÏnewspapers€and€periodicals.€€To€the€contrary,€future€historians€may€well€be€relying€on€paperÏcopies€of€todayððs€newspapers€long€after€the€databases€and€CD„ROMs€have€becomeÏindecipherable.Ìà  àà ` àÓÓD.à0 ¸ àÔ_ÔAffirmanceÔ_Ô€of€the€Second€Circuit€Will€Have€Little,€If€Any,€Effect€on€theÐ xÈ  ÐPreservation€of€the€Historical€Record.Ð ¸ (#¸ (# ÐÌÓDÎÓà  àThe€Burns€òòamicióó€overstate€the€effect€that€an€Ô_ÔaffirmanceÔ_Ô€of€the€Second€Circuit€opinionÐ *z  Ðwould€have€on€the€historical€record.€€First,€the€number€of€articles€involved€is€relatively€small.€ÏOut€of€the€2.8€billion€records€available€on€Ô_ÔNexisÔ_Ô,׃’B×Ý ƒ*#ÃÝòòÚ  Ú22Ú  ÚóóÝ  Ý×  ×€defendants€have€identified€only€approximatelyÐ Â Ð100,000€articles€which€may€be€affected€by€the€decision.€€Pet.€for€cert.€at€13.€€This€amounts€toÏabout€0.0036%€of€the€records€in€the€database€„€hardly€a€major€factor€in€the€preservation€of€ourÏhistorical€memory.Ìà  àThe€Burns€òòamicióó€further€assume€that,€absent€a€reversal€of€the€Second€Circuit€opinion,€theÐ òB Ðonly€result€of€the€case€can€be€individual€negotiations€between€the€original€publisher€and€each€ofÏthe€freelance€authors.€€This€confuses€liability€with€remedy.€€The€Second€Circuit€has€so€far€simplyÏrecognized€the€applicability€of€the€freelance€writersðð€copyright€to€such€electronic€republishing.€€ItÏdoes€not€address€the€remedy€to€which€the€six€plaintiffs€may€be€entitled,€let€alone€how€a€courtÏmight€fashion€an€appropriate€remedy€for€past€violations€of€the€copyrights€of€a€class€of€freelanceÏwriters.€€Federal€courts€are€familiar€with€applying€formulas€to€the€computation€of€damages€whichÐ º' #' Ðmay€not€be€exact€but€which€do€substantive€justice€to€the€injured€parties€without€the€need€toÏconduct€individual€consideration€or€negotiation€with€every€class€member.ñÃñ€€Cite.ñÃññÄññÊñ׃0×ñÊññÊñ׃×ñÊñÝ ƒ*#ÃÝòòÚ  Ú23Ú  ÚóóÝ  Ý×  ×ñÄñ€€The€òòamicióó€here€doÐ |Ì Ðnot€propose€to€suggest€the€proper€remedy€in€this€case,€only€to€note€that€the€deletion€of€previouslyÏpublished€articles€from€commercial€databases€is€not€by€any€means€the€only,€or€even€likely,Ïoutcome€of€this€case.Ìà  àFurther,€treating€freelance€writers€fairly€will€not€result€in€a€black€hole€of€historicalÏmaterials.€€Even€with€the€ongoing€digitization€of€archives,€the€articles€written€by€freelanceÏwriters€will€be€referenced€in€indexes€of€periodicals,€and€will€still€appear€in€the€bound€volumes€orÏthe€microfilm€replications€of€the€publications€that€are€housed€in€thousands€of€libraries€around€theÏworld.€€They€are€ð ðlost€to€historyðð€only€if€one€assumes€that€a€historian€is€limited€by€what€isÏavailable€on€the€computer€screen.€€Even€a€cursory€review€of€the€acknowledgments,€footnotes€andÏbibliography€of€any€serious€historical€work€will€demonstrate€that€historians€do€not€considerÏthemselves€limited€by€what€is€easily€available.ÌÓÓà  àII.à0 ` àTHE€COPYRIGHTS€OF€FREELANCE€WRITERS€SHOULD€NOT€BEÐ  \ ÐIGNORED€SIMPLY€TO€SOLVE€THE€UNRELATED€PROBLEM€OFÏNEGLECT€OF€THE€NATIONððS€ARCHIVES.Ð ` (#` (# ÐÌÓìÙÓà  àThere€are,€to€be€sure,€serious€problems€with€the€nationððs€archives,€and€the€Burns€òòamicióó€areÐ ¤ô Ðcertainly€right€to€be€concerned€with€the€preservation€of€historical€records.€€However,€the€answerÏto€preserving€archives€is€to€allocate€the€money€and€resources€necessary€to€the€task,€not€toÐ <#Œ" Ðsacrifice€the€legal€rights€of€freelance€writers€to€this€supposed€greater€good.€€If€the€preservation€ofÏthese€records€for€posterity€was€such€an€important€public€task,€one€might€expect€the€defendantsÏhere€to€assume€a€large€share€of€the€cost€themselves.€€As€the€record€demonstrates,€that€is€not€theÏcase:€the€publishers€of€the€periodicals€are€paid€by€Lexis„Ô_ÔNexisÔ_Ô€to€provide€the€articles,€Lexis„¼Ô_ÔNexisÔ_Ô€is€paid€by€its€subscribers€for€access€to€the€articles,€and€a€payment€based€on€that€access€isÏremitted€to€the€original€publisher.€€ñÁñòòñÁññÂñòòñÂñSeeñÂñóóñÂñ€Brief€of€Amici€Advance€Publications,€Inc.ñÁñóóñÁñ,€òòet€alóó.,€at€17„18.€Ð ¬ ü  ÐAll€of€the€defendants€profit€from€making€these€records€available€in€electronic€form;€only€theÏfreelance€copyright€holders€are€asked€to€assume€responsibility€for€historical€memory.€ÏÔ‡ XHSXXXÔDefendants€clearly€do€not€expect€publishers€to€have€any€responsibility€in€this€regard,€since€theyÐ ` Ðassume€that€rather€than€fairly€compensate€freelance€copyright€holders,€they€will€simply€withdrawÏthe€articles€from€the€electronic€databases.Ô#†XHSXX XHSÎß#ÔÐ ¨ø Ðà  àNor€do€the€Burns€òòamicióó€address€the€obvious€problem€of€protecting€their€own€works.€€IfÐ tÄ Ðpublishers€can€simply€sell€their€periodical€articles€to€another€entity€to€distribute€in€electronicÏformat,€without€further€payment€to€the€author€holding€the€copyright,€why€canððt€they€do€the€sameÏwith€books?€€The€idea€of€the€public€having€immediate€and€searchable€access€to€an€electronicÏversion€of€òòTrumanóó€or€òòNo€Ordinary€Timeóó€may€be€tantalizing€for€students€and€other€readers€ofÐ ¤ô Ðhistory,€yet€one€suspects€that€the€Burns€òòamicióó€would€€rightly€be€wary€of€such€a€plan€if€it€did€notÐ p!À  Ðprovide€for€royalty€payments€to€them.€€They€would€rightly€see€such€action€as€a€clear€violation€ofÏtheir€copyright€and€a€substantial€disincentive€to€investing€the€considerable€time€and€effort€toÏproduce€future€works.Ìà  àFinally,€there€is€a€grave€concern€that€should€the€defendants€in€this€case€prevail,€it€couldÏdamage€to€the€role€of€independent€writers€in€society.€€The€freelance€writers€who€are€affected€byÏthis€case€are,€by€and€large,€an€impecunious€group€that€receives€little€compensation€for€theirÐ 8,ˆ', Ðwriting€as€it€is.€€òòSeeóó€Ô_ÔJ.A.Ô_Ô€389a,€407a,€418a„419a,€430a,€464a.€€The€inability€to€earn€any€more€thanÐ ° Ðtheir€one„time€fee€for€their€original€work,€no€matter€how€popular€the€article€might€become€in€theÏdigital€archives,€may€cause€them€to€stop€writing.€€The€irony€of€the€position€taken€by€the€BurnsÏòòamicióó€is€that€they€regard€the€potential€loss€of€past€materials€by€freelance€writers€as€causingÐ  d Ðð ðinestimableðð€damage€to€historians€„€yet€they€support€an€outcome€that€will€help€extinguish€thoseÏsame€voices€in€the€future.€€Attempting€to€make€freelance€writers€pay€for€the€sins€of€others€inÏneglecting€the€nationððs€archives€does€not€appear€to€have€been€part€of€Congressðð€intent€in€passingÏthe€Copyright€Act€and€its€amendments.€€As€historians,€the€òòamicióó€herein€do€not€believe€it€servesÐ D”  Ðthe€interests€of€the€historical€record€either.ÌÓ  ÓCONCLUSIONÌÓ  Óà  àFor€all€the€above„stated€reasons,€the€judgment€of€the€Second€Circuit€should€be€affirmed.ÌÓÓà  àà ` àà ¸ àà  àà h àà À àRespectfully€submitted,ÌÌà  àà ` àà ¸ àà  àà h àà À àTHEODORE€M.€Ô_ÔLIEVERMANÔ_ÔÌà  àà ` àà ¸ àà  àà h àà À àà  àòòCounsel€of€RecordóóÐ &v Ðà  àà ` àà ¸ àà  àà h àà À àÔ_ÔSPECTORÔ_Ô,€Ô_ÔROSEMANÔ_Ô€&€Ô_ÔKODROFFÔ_Ô,€P.C.Ìà  àà ` àà ¸ àà  àà h àà À à1818€Market€Street,€Suite€2500Ìà  àà ` àà ¸ àà  àà h àà À àPhiladelphia,€Pennsylvania€19103Ìà  àà ` àà ¸ àà  àà h àà À à(215)€496„0300ÌÌà  àà ` àà ¸ àà  àà h àà À àAttorneys€for€òòAmici€Curiaeóó€Ellen€Ô_ÔSchreckerÔ_Ô,€òòet€al.Ð Š Ú ÐóóÓêÓ