ÿWPC‰  
      ®…    ó•á°˜[—­¿tø<Ô­áûeÓs‰6éþŸžÐ½þj¡%óXÎÞJkz€Z†
›æÞÖ{îáß—¹ú_¢#‰_Ñ¡Àb÷û^íÛ2·”„Ý§~YôU‹	ËTo'þzò~úJýNf(`›.Î	·D
¬ô¢‚qµ¢OéÑ½±ÛÄ¿|)K{ÚøÔS»J¤EÐc¿™U€%"öî\}o±ºq«iåÄ&ÊHd(g¤ŠF†öu~÷õ·¥Ÿïâ¾"ÍŸ¥lfÀå/IÓ1_¡nmKÞh[î^œ6˜0ë~W}-ôô~>”+|º¦bSŠ[ãS¤½¢æ¢Â:‘Ný™üÎhFÍ{±Tc†Ž}Q~š­xžRûÞÌØœýè‘(§Þc«Æ>,-ÿÖ=<²ÿ¤ä{/ õýôÓÇ*±I_Òïä_WÇÁ£4rÂ‚ßeúÀAV‹S5Íù"HlG%ìÓà$P ‡C)D©$ÔŽú2C]Ÿ;îrVþÒR•Ei? @…Jg;=¹dT34YºM<ÁÒ•Ö.HIGó™
[‡Ôš¹› `~>ëú*.Æ,,a“ôƒŽ”Ó~–ŸÅ1nSÃÄ´sûúdÂ—Ý%—ÿ =`JÔÅhv}Qb¼¨_Ul©îKª            #   !  š   U   N   »  	%      	  0   (     ^      7  w   
   C  4      M        a        p  	m      r   ˜H P   L a s e r J e t   5 P                                                                                  ,ð ,,,,,ð 0                                                                                                                                                                 ( ÈhH  	   Z   6 T i m e s   N e w   R o m a n   R e g u l a r           X    (                    $ ¡   ¡   †yW*Å           Sp!)     £Ä‚   ¸´‚ 3| x      "             ÿU‹ÿ  ÀÀÀÝ
 ƒ   ! ÝÝ    ÝÔ_        Ôñ ñ€€Ì€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€ÌÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€No.€99-1240ÌÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€IN€THEÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€Supreme€Court€of€the€United€StatesÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€OCTOBER€TERM,€2000ÌÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€THE€BOARD€OF€TRUSTEES€OF€THE€UNIVERSITY,€OF€ALABAMA€ANDÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€THE€ALABAMA€DEPARTMENT€OF€YOUTH€SERVICES,ÌÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€Petitioners,€€€€€€€€€€€€ÌÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€v.ÌÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€PATRICIA€GARRETT€AND€MILTON€ASH,ÌÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€Respondents.€€€€€€€€€€€€ÌÌÌÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€On€Writ€of€Certiorari€to€theÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€United€States€Court€of€AppealsÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€for€the€Eleventh€CircuitÌÌÌÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€BRIEF€AMICUS€CURIAE€OFÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€THE€NATIONAL€COUNCIL€ON€DISABILITYÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€IN€SUPPORT€OF€RESPONDENTSÌÌÌÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€ROBERT€L.€Ô_        ÔBURGDORFÔ_        Ô,€JR.Ì€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€University€of€the€District€of€ColumbiaÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€David€A.€Clarke€School€of€LawÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€4250€Connecticut€Avenue,€Ô_        ÔN.W.Ô_        ÔÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€Building€38,€Room€204Ì€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€Washington,€DC€20008Ì€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€(202)€274-7334ÌÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€Counsel€of€Record€for€Amicus€CuriaeÌÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€Ô_        ÔBalmarÔ_        Ô€Legal€Publishing€Department,€Washington,€DC€(202)€682-9800Ð   	 ð-@),   ÐÔ_        Ô‡ÌÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€TABLE€OF€CONTENTSÌÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€INTEREST€OF€AMICUS€CURIAEÌÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€SUMMARY€OF€THE€ARGUMENTÌÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€ARGUMENTÌÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€I.THE€ADA€WAS€THE€CULMINATION€OF€25€YEARS€OFÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€METHODICAL€CONGRESSIONAL€STUDY€OF€DISCRIMINATIONÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€ON€THE€BASIS€OF€DISABILITY€AND€THE€APPROPRIATEÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€REMEDIES€TO€ADDRESS€SUCH€DISCRIM-INATIONÌÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€A.€Congressional€Investigation€and€Information€BaseÌÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€1.€HearingsÌÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€2.€Congressionally€Commissioned€StudiesÌÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€3.€Other€Resources€Before€CongressÌÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€4.€Overall€Documentary€Base€for€the€ADAÌÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€B.€In€Enacting€the€ADA,€Congress€Addressed€a€Documented€Pattern€ofÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€Discrimination€by€States€That€Falls€Within€Its€Power€to€Enforce€theÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€Fourteenth€AmendmentÌÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€1.€Congress€Addressed€a€Documented€Pattern€of€Discrimination€by€theÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€StatesÌÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€a.€Congressional€FindingsÌÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€b.€Documentation€of€State€DiscriminationÌÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€2.€The€Documented€Pattern€of€Discriminatory€State€Actions€WarrantedÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€Legislative€Action€Under€Congress's€Section€5€AuthorityÌÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€II.IN€CONSIDERING€AND€PASSING€THE€ADA,€CONGRESSÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€NEGOTIATED€AND€CRAFTED€MODEST,€CONGRUENT,€ANDÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€PROPORTIONAL€REMEDIES€FOR€IRRATIONAL€AND€UNFAIRÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€DISCRIM-INATION€ON€THE€BASIS€OF€DISABILITYÌÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€A.€The€ADA€Prohibits€Irrational€and€Unfair€Discrimination€by€the€States€20Ð   	 ð-@),   Ð‡€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€B.€Simply€Proscribing€Intentional€Differential€Treatment€Because€ofÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€Disability€Would€Achieve€a€Mere€Facade€of€Formal€Equality,€Not€RealÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€Equality€in€the€Form€of€Meaningful€Equal€Opportunity€22ÌÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€1.€Identical€Treatment€Can€Result€in€DiscriminationÌÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€2.€Exclusion€and€Other€Egregious€Deprivations€on€the€Basis€of€DisabilityÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€Often€Occur€in€the€Absence€of€Hostile€AnimusÌÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€C.€Congress€Negotiated€and€Crafted€Modest,€Congruent,€and€ProportionalÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€Requirements€and€CoverageÌÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€CONCLUSIONÌÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€APPENDIX€OF€CONGRESSIONALLY€COMMISSIONED€STUDIES€OFÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€DISCRIMINATION€ON€THE€BASIS€OF€DISABILITYÌÌÌÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€TABLE€OF€AUTHORITIESÌÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€CASESÌÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€Albertsons,€Inc.€v.€Kirkingburg,€119€S.Ct.€2162€(1999)ÌÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€Alexander€v.€Choate,€469€U.S.€287€(1985)ÌÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€City€of€Cleburne€v.€Cleburne€Living€Ctr.,€473€U.S.€432€(1985)ÌÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€Fullilove€v.€Klutznick,€448€U.S.€448€(1980)ÌÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€Murphy€v.€United€Parcel€Service,€119€S.Ct.€2133€(1999)ÌÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€Sutton€v.€United€Airlines,€119€S.Ct.€2139€(1999)ÌÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€STATUTESÌÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€Section€504€of€the€Rehabilitation€Act€of€1973,€29€U.S.C.€ðð794aÌÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€The€Americans€with€Disabilities€Act€(ADA),€42€U.S.C.€ðð€12101€et€seq.€(1990)ÌÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€The€Civil€Rights€Restoration€Act€of€1987,€Pub.€L.€No.€100-259,€102€Stat.€28Ì€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€(1988)ÌÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€The€Fair€Housing€Amendments€Act€of€1988,€Pub.€L.€No.€100-430,€102€Stat.1619Ð   	 ð-@),   Ð‡€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€Vocational€Rehabilitation€Act€Amendments€of€1965,€Pub.€L.€No.€89-333,€79€Stat.Ì€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€1282€(1965)ÌÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€29€U.S.C.€ðð€701(a)(3),€as€amended€by€Pub.€L.€No.€102-569,€tit.€I,€ðð€101,€106€Stat.Ì€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€4346ÌÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€29€U.S.C.€ðð€781€(1994)ÌÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€29€U.S.C.€ðð€791ÌÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€29€U.S.C.€ðð€793ÌÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€29€U.S.C.€ðð€794aÌÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€29€U.S.C.€ðððð€794(b)(1)(A)-(B)ÌÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€42€U.S.C.€ðððð€3604(f)(2)(B)-(C)ÌÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€42€U.S.C.€ðð€3604(f)(3)(B)ÌÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€42€U.S.C.€ðð€3604(f)(3)(C)ÌÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€42€U.S.C.€ðð€12101(a)(2)ÌÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€42€U.S.C.€ðð€12101(a)(3)ÌÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€42€U.S.C.€ðð€12101(a)(7)ÌÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€42€U.S.C.€ðð€12101(a)(9)ÌÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€42€U.S.C.€ðð€12101(b)(2)ÌÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€42€U.S.C.€ðððð€12102(2)ÌÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€42€U.S.C.€ðð€12112(b)(5)(A)ÌÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€42€U.S.C.€ðððð€12132,€12131(1)(A)€&€(B)ÌÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€42€U.S.C.€ðð€12213ÌÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€Pub.€L.€No.€86-380,€73€Stat.€703€(1959)ÌÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€Pub.€L.€No.€93-516,€ðððð€300-306,€88€Stat.€1631€(1974)ÌÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€Pub.€L.€No.€95-444,€92€Stat.€1067€(1978)Ð   	 ð-@),   Ð‡€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€Pub.€L.€No.€98-221,€tit.€I,€ðð€142,€98€Stat.€27€(1984),€codified€as€amended€at€29Ì€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€U.S.C.€ðð€781ÌÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€Pub.€L.€No.€100-630,€tit.€II,€ðð€205(a),€102€Stat.€3310€(1988)ÌÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€REGULATIONSÌÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€28€C.F.R.€ðð€35.130(b)(7)ÌÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€28€C.F.R.€ðð€35.150ÌÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€28€C.F.R.€ðð€35.150(a)(3)ÌÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€28€C.F.R.€ðð€35.160(b)(1)ÌÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€28€C.F.R.€35.164ÌÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€LEGISLATIVE€AUTHORITIESÌÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€H.R.€4498,€100€th€Cong.€2d€Sess.€(1988)ÌÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€S.€2345,€100th€Cong.,€2d€Sess.,€134€Cong.€Rec.€9379-9382€(1988)ÌÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€H.R.€Rep.€No.€101-485,€pt.€1€(1990)€(Committee€on€Public€Works€andÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€Transportation)ÌÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€H.R.€Rep.€No.€101-485,€pt.€2€(1990)€(Committee€on€Education€and€Labor)ÌÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€H.R.€Rep.€No.€101-485,€pt.€3€(1990)€(Committee€on€the€Judiciary)ÌÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€H.R.€Rep.€No.€101-485,€pt.€4€(1990)€(Committee€on€Energy€and€Commerce)ÌÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€S.€Rep.€No.€64,€100th€Cong.,€2d€Sess.€16€(1988)€(Labor€and€Human€ResourcesÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€Committee),€reprinted€in€1988€U.S.C.C.A.N.ÌÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€S.€Rep.€No.€101-116€(1989)ÌÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€Americans€with€Disabilities€Act:€Hearings€on€H.R.€2273€Before€the€Subcomm.Ì€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€on€Surface€Transportation€of€the€House€Comm.€on€Public€Works€andÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€Transportation,€101st€Cong.€(1990).ÌÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€Americans€with€Disabilities€Act€of€1988:€Hearing€on€H.R.€4498€Before€theÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€Subcommittee€on€Select€Education€of€the€House€Committee€on€Education€andÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€Labor,€100th€Cong.€(1988)ÌÐ   	 ð-@),   Ð€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€Americans€with€Disabilities€Act€of€1989:€Hearings€on€S.€933€Before€the€SenateÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€Committee€on€Labor€and€Human€Resources€and€the€Subcommittee€on€theÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€Handicapped,€101st€Cong.€(1989)ÌÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€117€Cong.€Rec.€45974€(1971)€(statement€of€Rep.€Vanik)ÌÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€118€Cong.€Rec.€526€(statement€of€Rep.€Percy)ÌÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€134€Cong.€Rec.€9599-9600€(1988)€(statement€of€Rep.€Coelho)ÌÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€135€Cong.€Rec.€S€10790€(Daily€Ed.€Sept.€7,€1989)€(remarks€of€Sen.€Dole)ÌÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€135€Cong.€Rec.€S€10713€(Daily€Ed.€Sept.€7,€1989)€(statement€of€Sen.€Harkin)ÌÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€135€Cong.€Rec.€S€10715€(Daily€Ed.€Sept.€7,€1989)€(statement€of€Sen.€Hatch).ÌÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€136€Cong.€Rec.€H€2429€(Daily€Ed.€May€17,€1990)€(statement€of€Rep.€Bartlett)ÌÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€136€Cong.€Rec.€H€2639€(Daily€ed.€May€22,€1990)€(statement€of€Rep.€Dellums)ÌÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€136€Cong.€Rec.€S€9686€(Daily€Ed.€July€13,€1990)€(statement€of€Sen.€Harkin)ÌÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€OTHER€AUTHORITIESÌÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€Advisory€Commission€on€Intergovernmental€Relations,€Disability€Rights€Mandates:Ì€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€Federal€and€State€Compliance€with€Employment€Protections€and€ArchitecturalÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€Barrier€Removal€(1989)ÌÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€Nancy€Lee€Jones,€Judicial€Decisions€Discussing€"Program€or€Activity€ReceivingÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€Federal€Funds"€Under€Section€504€of€the€Rehabilitation€Act€Before€and€AfterÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€Grove€City€College€v.€Bell,€Congressional€Research€Service,€The€Library€ofÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€Congress€(1985)ÌÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€Nancy€Lee€Jones,€Overview€of€Major€Issues€Under€Section€504€of€theÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€Rehabilitation€Act,€Congressional€Research€Service,€The€Library€of€CongressÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€(1985)ÌÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€Nancy€Lee€Jones,€Proposed€Coverage€of€Handicapped€Persons€By€Title€VII€ofÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€the€Civil€Rights€Act:€An€Analysis€of€H.R.€370,€Congressional€Research€Service,Ì€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€The€Library€of€Congress€(1985)ÌÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€Louis€Harris€and€Associates,€The€ICD€Survey€of€Disabled€Americans:€BringingÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€Disabled€Americans€into€the€Mainstream€(1986)ÌÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€Louis€Harris€and€Associates,€The€ICD€Survey€II:€Employing€Disabled€Americans,Ð   	 ð-@),   Ð€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€(1987)ÌÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€National€Council€on€the€Handicapped,€On€the€Threshold€of€Independence€(AndreaÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€H.€Farbman€ed.,€1988)ÌÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€National€Council€on€the€Handicapped,€Toward€Independence€(1986)ÌÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€Noakes€Associates€Architects,€Access€Maryland:€Handicapped€AccessibilityÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€Survey€(prepared€under€State€contract)€(1980)ÌÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€Report€of€the€Presidential€Commission€on€the€Human€Immunodefiency€VirusÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€Epidemic€(1988)€ÌÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€Ronald€Reagan,€Memorandum€to€the€Attorney€General,€April€30,€1982ÌÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€Robert€L.€Burgdorf€Jr.,€"Substantially€limited"€Protection€from€DisabilityÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€Discrimination:€The€Special€Treatment€Model€and€Misconstructions€of€theÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€Definition€of€Disability,€42€Vill.€L.€Rev.€409€(1997)ÌÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€Task€Force€on€Rights€and€Empowerment€of€Americans€with€Disabilities,€From€ADAÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€to€Empowerment:€The€Report€of€the€Task€Force€on€Rights€and€Empowerment€ofÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€Americans€with€Disabilities€(1990)€ÌÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€U.S.€Commission€on€Civil€Rights,€Accommodating€the€Spectrum€of€IndividualÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€Abilities€(1983)ÌÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€U.S.€Commission€on€Civil€Rights,€Civil€Rights€Issues€of€Handicapped€Americans:Ì€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€Public€Policy€Implications€(1980)ÌÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€U.S.€General€Accounting€Office,€Persons€with€Disabilities:€Reports€on€Costs€ofÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€Accommodations,€A€Briefing€Report€to€Congressional€Requesters€(January€4,Ì€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€1990)ÌÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€Webster's€Encyclopedic€Unabridged€Dictionary€of€the€English€Language€(1989)ÌÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€Webster's€New€Collegiate€Dictionary€(7th€Edition€1967)ÌÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€White€House€Conference€on€Handicapped€Individuals,€Special€Concerns:€StateÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€White€House€Conference€Workbook,€59€(U.S.€Dept.€of€Health,€Education,€andÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€Welfare,€Office€of€Human€Development,€undated)ÌÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€White€House€Conference€on€Handicapped€Individuals,€Volume€Three:Ì€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€Implementation€Plan€(1978)ÌÌÐ   	 ð-@),   Ð‡€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€No.€99-1240ÌÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€IN€THEÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€Supreme€Court€of€the€United€StatesÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€OCTOBER€TERM,€2000ÌÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€THE€BOARD€OF€TRUSTEES€OF€THE€UNIVERSITY,€OF€ALABAMA€ANDÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€THE€ALABAMA€DEPARTMENT€OF€YOUTH€SERVICES,ÌÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€Petitioners,€€€€€€€€€€€€ÌÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€v.ÌÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€PATRICIA€GARRETT€AND€MILTON€ASH,ÌÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€Respondents.€€€€€€€€€€€€ÌÌÌÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€On€Writ€of€Certiorari€to€theÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€United€States€Court€of€AppealsÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€for€the€Eleventh€CircuitÌÌÌÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€BRIEF€AMICUS€CURIAE€OFÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€THE€NATIONAL€COUNCIL€ON€DISABILITYÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€IN€SUPPORT€OF€RESPONDENTSÌÌÌÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€INTEREST€OF€AMICUS€CURIAEÌÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€This€brief€amicus€curiae€is€filed,€pursuant€to€consents€of€the€parties€filed€with€theÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€Clerk,(1)€on€behalf€of€the€National€Council€on€Disability.€The€Council€is€anÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€independent€federal€agency€comprised€of€15€members€appointed€by€the€President€ofÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€the€United€States€and€confirmed€by€the€U.S.€Senate.€Pursuant€to€its€statutoryÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€mandate,€29€U.S.C.€ðð€781€(1994),€the€Council€is€charged€with€reviewing€federalÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€laws,€regulations,€programs,€and€policies€affecting€people€with€disabilities,€andÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€making€recommendations€to€the€President,€the€Congress,€officials€of€federalÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€agencies,€and€other€federal€entities,€regarding€ways€to€better€promote€equalÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€opportunity,€economic€self-sufficiency,€independent€living,€and€inclusion€andÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€integration€into€all€aspects€of€society€for€Americans€with€disabilities.€ÌÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€The€Council€plays€a€major€role€in€developing€disability€policy€in€America,€and,€inÐ   	 ð-@),   Ð€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€1986,€first€proposed€the€concept€of€the€Americans€with€Disabilities€Act€(ADA),€42Ì€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€U.S.C.€ðð€12101€et€seq.€(1990),€the€statute€at€issue€in€this€case.€In€1988,€the€CouncilÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€developed€the€original€ADA€bill€that€was€introduced€in€the€100th€Congress.Ì€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€Congress€relied€on€and€acknowledged€the€influence€of€the€Council€and€its€reportsÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€during€congressional€consideration€and€passage€of€the€ADA;€members€and€staff€ofÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€the€Council€testified€at€congressional€hearings€on€the€legislation.€Under€its€currentÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€statutory€mandate,€the€Council€is€responsible€for€gathering€information€about€theÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€implementation,€effectiveness,€and€impact€of€the€ADA.€The€Council€is€thus€intenselyÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€interested€in€ensuring€that€the€ADA€is€interpreted€and€implemented€in€a€mannerÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€consistent€with€the€purposes€for€which€it€was€proposed.€It€is€also€uniquely€qualifiedÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€to€provide€the€Court€with€information€about€the€background€and€framing€of€theÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€ADA,€implementation€of€the€Act,€and€other€information€concerning€policy€issuesÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€affecting€persons€with€disabilities.€The€Council€is€particularly€concerned€with€andÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€distinctively€informed€about€issues€that€are€at€the€core€of€these€cases--theÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€documented€record€of€denials€of€equality€and€due€process€to€individuals€withÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€disabilities€by€State€and€local€governments,€and€the€congruence€and€proportionality€ofÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€the€measures€the€ADA€imposes€on€governmental€entities€to€address€and€remedy€theÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€denials€of€equal€protection€and€due€process€that€people€with€disabilities€haveÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€experienced€and€continue€to€experience.ÌÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€SUMMARY€OF€ARGUMENTÌÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€The€ADA€was€the€culmination€of€25€years€of€methodical€congressional€study,Ì€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€measured€legislative€steps,€and€finely€tuned€negotiation€regarding€the€problem€ofÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€discrimination€on€the€basis€of€disability€and€the€appropriate€remedies€to€address€suchÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€discrimination.€The€careful,€step-by-step€consideration,€unrivaled€in€civil€rights€law,Ì€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€that€Congress€afforded€the€issue€of€disability€discrimination€produced€a€solid€legalÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€and€factual€foundation€for€the€ADA,€engendered€an€enlightened€and€sophisticatedÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€congressional€understanding€of€the€nature€and€forms€of€discrimination€on€the€basis€ofÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€disability,€and€enabled€Congress€to€devise,€field-test,€and€refine€moderate,€workableÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€remedies€for€such€discrimination.€Congress€established€amicus,€in€part,€to€assist€withÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€these€efforts;€consistent€with€its€charge,€amicus€played€a€role€in€systematicallyÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€examining€such€discrimination€and€federal€laws€addressing€it€and€in€making€andÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€explaining€proposals,€including,€in€particular,€the€ADA,€for€ameliorating€suchÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€discrimination.ÌÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€In€the€ADA,€Congress€made€explicit€findings€both€that€discrimination€on€the€basis€ofÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€disability€is€pervasive,€i.e.,€diffused€throughout€every€part,€in€American€society,€andÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€that€it€persists€in€various€particular€areas€of€State€functions€and€activities,€includingÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€"access€to€public€services"€and€employment.€In€making€these€findings,€Congress€hadÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€solid€support€in€the€documentation€before€it.€Also€based€on€a€solid€documentaryÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€foundation€was€Congress's€belief€that€even€though€most€States€have€laws€prohibitingÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€discrimination€and€establishing€services€and€protections,€the€States€are€nonethelessÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€engaged€in€widespread€and€serious€discrimination€on€the€basis€of€disability.ÌÐ   	 ð-@),   Ð€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€Congress€was€also€on€solid€ground€in€its€conclusion€that€State€discrimination€on€theÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€basis€of€disability€has€Fourteenth€Amendment€significance.€In€considering€the€ADA,Ì€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€Congress€had€before€it€a€considerable€body€of€case€law€holding€various€forms€ofÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€State€discrimination€on€the€basis€of€disability€to€be€violations€of€the€FourteenthÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€Amendment.€The€Court's€decision€in€City€of€Cleburne€v.€Cleburne€Living€Ctr.,Ì€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€473€U.S.€432€(1985),€decision€makes€it€abundantly€clear€that€some€types€ofÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€discriminatory€actions€by€governmental€entities€violate€equal€protection€because€theyÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€are€not€"rational."€In€situations€where,€as€with€disability,€"negative€attitudes"€andÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€"irrational€prejudice"€toward€a€class€of€citizens€have€become€the€accepted€practiceÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€and€the€standard€way€of€dealing€with€those€citizens,€and€have€become€ingrained€inÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€the€policies,€practices,€and€even€the€facilities€of€American€society,€includingÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€particularly€State€governments€and€their€components,€Congress€is€exercising€aÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€fundamentally€important€role€under€the€Fourteenth€Amendment€when€it€identifiesÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€and€prohibits€such€irrational€actions.€ÌÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€Having€identified€a€well-documented€problem€of€State€discrimination€in€violation€ofÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€the€Fourteenth€Amendment,€Congress€negotiated€extensively€and€crafted€modest,Ì€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€congruent,€and€proportional€remedies€for€irrational€and€unfair€discrimination€byÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€States.€Congress€had€good€reason€based€on€past€experience€to€know€that€aÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€broadly-worded€prohibition€of€discrimination€on€the€basis€of€disability€would€not€beÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€sufficient€to€address€such€discrimination.€Because€identical€treatment€can€result€inÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€disability€discrimination€and€because€exclusion€and€other€egregious€deprivations€onÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€the€basis€of€disability€often€occur€in€the€absence€of€hostile€animus,€Congress€electedÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€to€provide€real€equality,€and€not€just€a€formal€facade€of€equality,€by€establishing€suchÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€ADA€requirements€as€reasonable€accommodation,€barrier€removal,€auxiliary€aids,Ì€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€proscribing€standards€or€methods€administration€that€have€the€effect€ofÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€discrimination,€and€prohibiting€of€discriminatory€qualification€standards€and€selectionÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€criteria,€all€of€which€had€been€developed€and€tested€under€prior€statutes€andÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€regulations.ÌÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€These€and€other€ADA€provisions€were€carefully€fine-tuned€during€protractedÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€congressional€consideration€and€debates,€involving€extensive€negotiations€andÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€compromises.€Amicus€believes€that,€in€contrast€to€its€moderate€original€version€of€theÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€ADA,€in€enacting€the€final€version€of€the€ADA€Congress€moved€in€the€direction€ofÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€crafting€standards€that€are€unnecessarily€lenient€and€limited.€The€ADA'sÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€requirements€and€coverage€certainly€are€not€incongruous€or€disproportionate€inÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€relation€to€the€serious€pattern€of€State€discrimination€they€address.ÌÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€ARGUMENTÌÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€I.€The€ADA€Was€the€Culmination€of€25€Years€of€Methodical€Congressional€StudyÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€of€Discrimination€on€the€Basis€of€Disability€and€the€Appropriate€Remedies€toÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€Address€Such€Discrimination.ÌÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€As€the€Court€has€recognized,(2)€the€Americans€with€Disabilities€Act€(ADA)€had€itsÐ   	 ð-@),   Ð€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€origin€in€a€proposal€of€amicus€the€National€Council€on€Disability.(3)€As€the€ADAÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€passed€the€Senate,€Senator€Dole€observed:ÌÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€The€ADA€is€.€.€.€a€good€example€of€bipartisanship€in€action.€The€billÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€originated€with€an€initiative€of€the€National€Council€on€Disability,€anÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€independent€Federal€body€comprised€of€15€members€appointed€byÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€President€Reagan€and€charged€with€reviewing€all€laws,€programs,€andÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€policies€of€the€Federal€Government€affecting€individuals€withÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€disabilities.€135€Cong.€Rec.€S€10790€(Daily€Ed.€Sept.€7,€1989)€(remarksÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€of€Sen.€Dole).ÌÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€Amicus,€in€proposing€the€ADA,€and€the€101st€Congress,€in€enacting€it,€based€theirÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€actions€on€a€quarter€century€of€prior€congressional€investigation€and€documentation,Ì€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€and€measured€legislative€steps--extraordinarily€extensive€factfinding€andÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€investigation€to€establish€a€factual€and€legal€foundation€for€enactment€of€the€ADA.ÌÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€A.€Congressional€Investigation€and€Information€BaseÌÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€1.€HearingsÌÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€Congress€held€eighteen€hearings€to€consider€the€ADA--two€in€the€100th€CongressÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€and€sixteen€in€the€101st€(4)--in€addition€to€scores€of€congressional€hearings€over€theÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€years€that€examined€discrimination€on€the€basis€of€disability€in€various€areas€ofÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€activity,€such€as€education,€employment,€transportation,€housing,€communications,Ì€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€residential€treatment€facilities,€and€public€buildings.ÌÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€2.€Congressionally€Commissioned€StudiesÌÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€In€addition€to€its€direct€fact-gathering€through€its€own€investigation€and€hearingÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€processes€and€the€resources€and€compilations€available€to€it€through€the€Library€ofÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€Congress€and€the€Congressional€Research€Service,(5)€Congress€formally€soughtÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€additional€information€and€recommendations€by€establishing,€by€statute€orÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€congressional€appointment,€several€investigatory€and€advisory€instrumentalities,€andÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€vesting€them€with€responsibility€for€studying€various€facets€of€discrimination€on€theÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€basis€of€disability€and€proposing€ways€to€address€and€eliminate€it.ÌÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€These€instrumentalities€include:€ÌÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€(a)€the€National€Commission€on€Architectural€Barriers,€established€by€statute€andÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€charged€with€studying€the€extent€to€which€architectural€barriers€prevented€access€toÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€public€buildings€and€to€propose€measures€to€eliminate€existing€barriers€and€preventÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€new€ones€from€being€created,€Vocational€Rehabilitation€Act€Amendments€of€1965,Ì€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€Pub.€L.€No.€89-333,€79€Stat.€1282€(1965);€ÌÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€(b)€the€White€House€Conference€on€Handicapped€Individuals,€whose€statutoryÐ   	 ð-@),   Ð€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€mission€was€to€convene€a€national€gathering€"to€develop€recommendations€andÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€stimulate€a€national€assessment€of€problems,€and€solutions€to€such€problems,€facingÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€individuals€with€[disabilities],"€with€equal€protection€as€a€key€focus,€Pub.€L.€No.Ì€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€93-516,€ðððð€300-306,€at€ðððð€302,€301(4),€88€Stat.€1631€(1974),€and€which€culminated€inÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€a€May€1977€gathering€in€Washington,€DC€of€approximately€3,700€individuals€fromÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€every€state€and€U.S.€territory,€representing€over€100,000€people€who€attended€local,Ì€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€state,€and€territorial€conferences,€that€generated€815€formal€recommendationsÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€addressing€287€issues;ÌÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€(c)€the€U.S.€Commission€on€Civil€Rights,€which€was€given€jurisdiction€over€disabilityÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€discrimination€in€1978,€Pub.€L.€No.€95-444,€92€Stat.€1067€(1978),€and€which,€in€1983,Ì€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€published€Accommodating€the€Spectrum€of€Individual€Abilities€(hereinafterÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€Accommodating€the€Spectrum),€a€comprehensive€report€on€discrimination€on€theÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€basis€of€disability€which€documented€the€types€of€discrimination€people€withÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€disabilities€encounter€and€provided€a€summary€of€case€law€and€a€conceptualÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€framework€for€understanding€and€addressing€such€discrimination,€that€has€been€citedÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€by€the€Court€as€authority€regarding€the€nature€of€such€discrimination,€Alexander€v.Ì€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€Choate,€469€U.S.€287,€295-96,€nn.€12€&€16€(1985);€ÌÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€(d)€amicus,€the€National€Council€on€Disability,€which€Congress€established€in€1984Ì€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€as€an€independent€federal€agency€charged€with€reviewing€federal€laws€andÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€programs€affecting€people€with€disabilities€and€making€recommendations€regardingÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€ways€to€make€such€laws€and€programs€more€effective,€Pub.€L.€No.€98-221,€tit.€I,€ððÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€142,€98€Stat.€27€(1984),€codified€as€amended€at€29€U.S.C.€ðð€781,€and€which€in€twoÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€of€its€reports€to€the€President€and€Congress€first€proposed€the€concept€of€an€ADAÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€and€then€published€the€original€draft€of€the€ADA€that€was€later€introduced€inÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€Congress€in€1988,€National€Council€on€the€Handicapped,€Toward€IndependenceÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€18-21€(1986)€(hereinafter€Toward€Independence);€National€Council€on€theÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€Handicapped,€On€the€Threshold€of€Independence€27-39€(Andrea€H.€FarbmanÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€ed.,€1988)€(hereinafter€On€the€Threshold€of€Independence);€S.€2345,€100th€Cong.,Ì€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€2d€Sess.,€134€Cong.€Rec.€9379-9382€(1988);€H.R.€4498,€100th€Cong.€2d€Sess.;€seeÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€134€Cong.€Rec.€9599-9600€(1988)€(statement€of€Rep.€Coelho);ÌÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€(e)€the€Advisory€Commission€on€Intergovernmental€Relations,€a€bipartisan€bodyÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€(comprised€of€three€U.S.€Senators,€three€members€of€the€House€of€Representatives,Ì€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€three€officials€from€the€U.S.€Executive€Branch,€four€governors,€four€mayors,€threeÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€members€of€State€legislatures,€three€elected€county€officials,€and€three€privateÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€citizens),€Pub.€L.€No.€86-380,€73€Stat.€703€(1959),€which€in€1989€issued€a€reportÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€titled€Disability€Rights€Mandates:€Federal€and€State€Compliance€withÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€Employment€Protections€and€Architectural€Barrier€Removal€that€identifiedÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€various€barriers€to€governmental€compliance€with€disability€rights€mandates,€and€wasÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€based€in€part€on€a€survey€of€State€officials€regarding€their€assessment€ofÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€impediments€to€employment€of€persons€with€disabilities€in€State€government,€id.€at€2,Ì€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€72-73;ÌÐ   	 ð-@),   Ð€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€(f)€the€General€Accounting€Office€(GAO),€which,€in€response€to€a€request€byÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€members€of€Congress,€during€congressional€consideration€of€the€ADA€in€JanuaryÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€1990,€for€information€about€the€costs€of€workplace€accommodations€and€of€avoidingÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€or€removing€architectural,€transportation,€and€communication€barriers,€conducted€aÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€literature€review€of€published€studies,€queried€a€wide€range€of€industry€groups€andÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€disability€organizations,€identified€twelve€reports€that€provided€such€information,€andÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€summarized€their€findings,€U.S.€General€Accounting€Office,€Persons€withÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€Disabilities:€Reports€on€Costs€of€Accommodations,€A€Briefing€Report€toÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€Congressional€Requesters,€at€12,€11-25€(January€4,€1990);€andÌÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€(g)€the€Task€Force€on€the€Rights€and€Empowerment€of€Americans€with€Disabilities,Ì€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€appointed€in€May€1988€by€the€Chairman€of€the€House€Subcommittee€on€SelectÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€Education€to€gather€information€on€the€extent€and€nature€of€disability€discrimination,Ì€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€which€conducted€63€public€forums€around€the€country€attended€by€over€7,000Ì€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€persons,€submitted€eleven€interim€reports€to€Congress,€provided€testimony€atÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€hearings€on€the€ADA€in€both€the€House€and€Senate,(6)€issued€a€final€report,€FromÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€ADA€to€Empowerment;€The€Report€of€the€Task€Force€on€the€Rights€andÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€Empowerment€of€Americans€with€Disabilities€(1990)€(hereinafter€From€ADA€toÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€Empowerment),€and€concluded€generally€that€Americans€with€disabilities€faceÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€"massive,€society-wide€discrimination€and€paternalism,"€id.€at€18,€19.ÌÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€The€statutory€and€other€sources€of€authority€of€these€entities,€a€description€of€theirÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€missions,€the€titles€of€their€principal€relevant€reports,€and€a€summary€of€their€overallÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€pertinent€results€are€presented€in€tabular€form€in€the€Appendix€to€this€brief.Ì€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€Together,€they€represent€a€powerful,€twenty-five€year€effort€undertaken€byÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€Congress€to€commission€sustained€investigation€into€the€nature€and€scope€ofÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€discrimination€on€the€basis€of€disability€and€to€identify€workable€measures€forÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€addressing€it.€ÌÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€3.€Other€Resources€Before€CongressÌÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€In€addition€to€legislatively€generated€information€and€documents,€amicus,€inÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€developing€its€ADA€proposal,€and€Congress,€in€its€consideration€of€the€legislation,Ì€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€had€the€benefit€of€a€variety€of€other€informational€resources.€Among€these€wereÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€three€documents€that€Congress€expressly€relied€on:€(1)€Report€of€the€PresidentialÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€Commission€on€the€Human€Immunodefiency€Virus€Epidemic€(1988)€(discussedÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€the€widespread€prevalence€and€serious€repercussions€of€baseless€discriminationÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€encountered€by€those€with€HIV,€and€expressly€endorsed€amicus'€ADA€proposal,€id.Ì€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€at€119-123);€(2)€Louis€Harris€and€Associates,€The€ICD€Survey€of€DisabledÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€Americans:€Bringing€Disabled€Americans€into€the€Mainstream,€(1986)Ì€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€(presented€results€of€first€nation-wide,€telephone€survey€of€Americans€withÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€Disabilities,€including€wide€array€of€statistical€information€about€the€incomes,€jobÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€status,€and€other€characteristics,€activities,€and€viewpoints€of€people€with€disabilities;Ì€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€among€findings€were€that€approximately€two-thirds€of€individuals€with€disabilities€ofÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€working€age€were€not€working,€and€that€two-thirds€of€those€not€working€want€toÐ   	 ð-@),   Ð€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€work,€id.€at€47,€50-51);€and€(3)€Louis€Harris€and€Associates,€The€ICD€Survey€II:Ì€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€Employing€Disabled€Americans,€(1987)€(provided€data€from€Harris€survey€ofÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€employers'€policies,€practices,€and€attitudes€of€employers.€The€Harris€agencyÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€reported€that€three-fourths€of€managers€of€businesses€affirmed€that€people€withÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€disabilities€"often€encounter€job€discrimination€from€employers."€Id.€at€12.ÌÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€4.€Overall€Documentary€Base€for€the€ADAÌÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€ADA€committee€reports€expressly€cite€seven€documents€as€providing€support€forÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€congressional€conclusions€regarding€the€nature€and€extent€of€discrimination€on€theÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€basis€of€disability:€amicus'€Toward€Independence€(1986)€and€On€the€Threshold€ofÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€Independence€(1988);€the€U.S.€Commission€on€Civil€Rights€report€AccommodatingÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€the€Spectrum€(1983);€the€two€Harris€polls;€the€Report€of€the€PresidentialÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€Commission€on€the€Human€Immunodefiency€Virus€Epidemic€(1990);€and€FromÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€ADA€to€Empowerment,€the€report€of€the€Task€Force€on€the€Rights€andÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€Empowerment€of€Americans€with€Disabilities.€S.€Rep.€No.€101-116,€at€6€(1989);Ì€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€H.R.€Rep.€No.€101-485,€pt.€2,€at€28€(1990).€The€cited€documents,€however,Ì€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€themselves€refer€to€and€build€upon€the€whole€body€of€information€aboutÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€discrimination€on€the€basis€of€disability€and€ways€to€address€it€developed€and€reliedÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€on€in€Congress'€twenty-five€years€of€study€and€documentation€of€these€issues.ÌÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€B.€In€Enacting€the€ADA,€Congress€Addressed€a€Documented€Pattern€ofÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€Discrimination€by€States€That€Falls€Within€Its€Power€to€Enforce€the€FourteenthÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€Amendment.ÌÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€1.€Congress€Addressed€a€Documented€Pattern€of€Discrimination€by€the€States.ÌÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€The€petitioners€contend€that€in€enacting€the€ADA€Congress€did€not€address€aÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€"predicate"€of€discriminatory€conduct€by€the€States.€Petitioners'€Br.€at€30.€Both€theÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€statutory€language€and€the€documentation€and€legislative€record€Congress€hadÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€before€it€fly€in€the€face€of€this€contention.ÌÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€a.€Congressional€FindingsÌÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€Petitioners'€brief€argues,€emphatically,€that€"[n]ot€one€instance€of€such€conduct€isÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€identified,€whether€in€the€findings€and€purpose€section€of€the€law€or€in€any€other€TitleÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€of€the€Act."€Petitioners'€Br.€at€31.€The€legal€relevance€of€petitioners'€assertion€isÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€dubious,€as€this€Court€has€never€stated€that€the€constitutional€basis€for€aÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€congressional€enactment€must€be€explicitly€spelled€out€in€Findings,€Purposes,€or€theÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€body€of€a€statute.ÌÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€Even€if€petitioners'€contention€had€legal€significance,€however,€it€is€manifestly€notÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€accurate.€Congress€not€only€mentioned€several€forms€of€State€discrimination€in€itsÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€findings,€but€it€went€much€further€and€found€that€discrimination€on€the€basis€ofÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€disability€is€"pervasive"€in€America.€42€U.S.C.€ðð€12101(a)(2).€The€word€"pervasive"Ð   	 ð-@),   Ð€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€means€"diffused€throughout€every€part€of,"€Webster's€New€Collegiate€DictionaryÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€(7th€Edition€1967)€at€631,€or€"extending€throughout,"€Webster's€EncyclopedicÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€Unabridged€Dictionary€of€the€English€Language€(1989)€at€1076.€It€makes€noÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€sense€for€petitioners€to€contend€that€"pervasive"€discrimination€does€not€encompassÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€the€States.ÌÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€Moreover,€Congress€left€no€doubt€about€the€role€of€States€as€major€discriminatorsÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€when€it€made€a€specific€finding€that€"discrimination€against€individuals€withÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€disabilities€persists€in€such€critical€areas€as€employment,€housing,€publicÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€accommodations,€education,€transportation,€communication,€recreation,Ì€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€institutionalization,€health€services,€voting,€and€access€to€public€services."€42€U.S.C.Ì€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€ðð€12101(a)(3).€Significantly,€in€finding€that€discrimination€persists€in€the€area€ofÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€"access€to€public€services,"€Congress€laid€a€solid€"predicate"€for€its€enactment€ofÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€Title€II€of€the€ADA.€Title€II€is€titled€"Public€Services"€and€applies€to€the€"services,Ì€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€programs,€or€activities€of€a€public€entity,"€a€term€which€is€defined€to€mean€"any€StateÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€or€local€government"€or€their€instrumentalities.€42€U.S.C.€ðððð€12132,€12131(1)(A)€&Ì€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€(B).€Among€the€other€areas€of€discrimination€expressly€identified€by€the€Congress€inÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€the€finding,€discrimination€in€voting€and€institutionalization€involve€activitiesÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€attributable€exclusively€to€State€and€local€governments;€education€and€transportationÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€are€functions€in€which€State€and€local€governments€play€predominant€roles;€andÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€employment,€communication,€recreation,€and€health€services€are€all€areas€in€whichÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€the€States€are€significantly€involved€and€thus€share€with€other€nongovernmentalÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€entities€responsibility€for€the€widespread€discrimination€Congress€identified.ÌÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€b.€Documentation€of€State€Discrimination€ÌÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€In€making€a€finding€that€discrimination€on€the€basis€of€disability€was€"pervasive,"Ì€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€Congress€had€solid€support€in€the€documentation€before€it.€See€On€the€Threshold€ofÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€Independence€at€27,€ðð€2(a)(2)€("discrimination€against€persons€with€disabilitiesÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€continues€to€be€a€serious€and€pervasive€social€problem");€Toward€Independence,Ì€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€App.€at€A-3€("severity€and€pervasiveness€of€discrimination€against€people€withÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€disabilities€is€well-documented)";€Accommodating€the€Spectrum€at€159,€ConclusionÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€1€("discrimination€against€handicapped€persons€continues€to€be€a€serious€andÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€pervasive€social€problem");€Task€Force€on€the€Rights€and€Empowerment€ofÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€Americans€with€Disabilities,€From€ADA€to€Empowerment€at€16€("overwhelmingÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€evidence"€of€"massive,€society-wide€discrimination€.€.€.");€U.S.€Commission€on€CivilÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€Rights,€Civil€Rights€Issues€of€Handicapped€Americans:€Public€PolicyÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€Implications,€40€(1980)€(Statement€of€Charles€W.€Hoehne,€spokesperson€for€theÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€White€House€Conference)€(White€House€Conference€reports€make€it€"very€plainÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€that€individuals€with€disabilities€have€been€and€continue€to€be€.€.€.€subjected€toÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€massive€discrimination€in€this€country").€ÌÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€Also€well-documented€was€the€existence€of€widespread€discrimination€in€variousÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€categories€of€State€activities.€In€Accommodating€the€Spectrum,€the€Commission€onÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€Civil€Rights€examined€various€categories€of€activities€in€some€detail€and€notedÐ   	 ð-@),   Ð€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€extensive€and€well-documented€discrimination€in€regard€to€public€educationÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€systems,(7)€confinement€in€public€residential€institutions,(8)€involuntary€sterilizationsÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€pursuant€to€State€laws,(9)€inaccessible€public€transportation€terminals€andÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€vehicles,(10)€and€inaccessible€public€buildings.(11)ÌÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€In€discussing€the€latter,€the€Commission€effectively€refuted€the€petitioners'Ì€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€arguments€that€Congress€could€not€have€addressed€a€pattern€of€State€discriminationÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€on€the€basis€of€disability€since€many€States€have€laws€prohibiting€such€discrimination.Ì€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€Petitioners'€Br.€at€31-33.€The€Commission€noted€the€sharp€divergence€between€theÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€sentiments€expressed€in€State€legislation€and€the€actual€reality:ÌÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€Despite€.€.€.€the€fact€that€nearly€every€State€has€a€statute€prohibitingÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€architectural€barriers,€such€barriers€continue€to€be€a€serious€problem.Ì€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€The€extent€of€inaccessibility€was€illustrated€by€a€1980€study€ofÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€State-owned€buildings€housing€services€and€programs€available€to€theÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€general€public.€The€study€found€76€percent€of€the€buildings€physicallyÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€inaccessible€by€and€unusable€for€serving€[persons€with€disabilities],Ì€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€even€when€taking€into€account€the€option€of€moving€programs€andÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€services€to€other€parts€of€the€buildings€or€otherwise€restructuringÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€them.(12)12ÌÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€See€also€White€House€Conference€on€Handicapped€Individuals,€Volume€Three:Ì€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€Implementation€Plan€61€(1978)€("The€entire€conference€record€overwhelminglyÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€reflects€that€formal€articulation€of€a€right€is€one€matter;€the€general€enjoyment€of€thatÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€right€is€quite€another.").(13)€ÌÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€The€Commission€on€Civil€Rights€also€listed,€with€extensive€footnotes€identifyingÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€sources€in€case€law€and€professional€literature,€other€practices€involving€the€laws€ofÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€States€and€activities€of€State€officials€in€which€persons€with€disabilities€"areÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€frequently€denied€other€rights€and€opportunities€that€[nondisabled]€persons€take€forÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€granted."€Accommodating€the€Spectrum€at€39-40.€These€included€the€right€to€vote,Ì€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€to€hold€public€office,€to€obtain€a€driver's€or€a€hunting€and€fishing€license,€to€marry€andÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€to€enter€into€contracts,€and€to€retain€custody€of€their€children.€Id.€at€40.(14)ÌÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€The€Civil€Rights€Commission€did€not€discuss€public€employment€separately€due€to€itsÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€conclusion€that€employment€was€one€of€the€areas€in€which€"pervasive"€discriminationÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€"persists."€Id.€at€159,€Conclusion€1.€The€Advisory€Commission€on€IntergovernmentalÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€Relations€(ACIR)€report,€however,€presented€specific€documentation€on€StateÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€employment.€En€route€to€its€findings€that€barriers€to€government€compliance€withÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€disability€rights€mandates€include€"negative€employer€attitudes€about€persons€withÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€disabilities,€agency€fear€of€the€costs€involved€in€accommodating€disabled€persons,Ì€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€lack€of€information€about€what€works€and€what€does€not€work,€[and]€unawarenessÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€of€cost-effective€methods€of€meeting€mandates,"€ACIR,€Disability€RightsÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€Mandates:€Federal€and€State€Compliance€with€Employment€Protections€andÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€Architectural€Barrier€Removal€at€2,€Finding€5€(1989),€ACIR€reported€on€a€surveyÐ   	 ð-@),   Ð€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€of€State€officials€it€had€conducted.€The€results€of€the€survey€indicated€that€83%€ofÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€the€survey€respondents€reported€that€negative€attitudes€toward€and€misconceptionsÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€about€people€with€disabilities€had€a€moderate€or€strong€impact€on€State€employmentÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€of€persons€with€disabilities,€and€68%€said€that€the€lack€of€leadership€support€andÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€commitment€to€employment€of€persons€with€disabilities€was€a€strong€or€moderateÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€impediment€to€such€employment.€Id.€at€72,€Table€6-10.€ÌÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€Likewise,€the€Task€Force€on€Rights€and€Empowerment€of€Americans€withÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€Disabilities€report€highlighted€various€examples€of€discrimination€reported€to€the€TaskÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€Force,€including€a€city€bus€driver€with€mental€illness€who€was€repeatedly€harassed,Ì€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€ridiculed,€and€pressured€to€resign€by€his€supervisor€because€of€his€disability,€FromÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€ADA€to€Empowerment€at€22;€a€young€man€employed€as€a€laborer€by€a€StateÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€Conservation€Corps€subjected€to€workplace€harassment€and€public€ridicule€by€hisÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€superior€because€of€his€mental€retardation,€id.€at€21;€a€career€army/reserve/nationalÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€guard€officer€was€terminated€with€no€benefits€from€the€Alabama€National€GuardÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€when€it€was€learned€that€he€had€been€diagnosed€with€depression€and€anxiety€someÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€25€years€earlier,€id.ÌÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€Accordingly,€in€the€ADA,€Congress€found,€based€upon€extensive€prior€study€andÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€documented€evidence,€that€discrimination€on€the€basis€of€disability€is€a€"serious€andÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€pervasive€problem"€in€America,€and€that€the€States€were€major€perpetrators€of€suchÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€discrimination.ÌÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€2.€The€Documented€Pattern€of€Discriminatory€State€Actions€Warranted€LegislativeÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€Action€Under€Congress's€Section€5€Authority.ÌÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€In€calling€for€a€comprehensive€equal€opportunity€law€in€1986,€amicus€termedÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€discrimination€on€the€basis€of€disability€"the€antithesis€of€equal€opportunity,"€TowardÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€Independence,€App.€at€A-3,€and€quoted€President€Reagan's€declaration€that€"[o]urÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€Nation's€commitment€to€equal€protection€of€the€laws€will€have€little€meaning€if€weÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€deny€such€protection€to€those€who€have€not€been€blessed€with€the€same€physical€orÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€mental€gifts€we€too€often€take€for€granted."€Id.€at€A-4,€quoting€R.€Reagan,Ì€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€Memorandum€to€the€Attorney€General,€April€30,€1982.ÌÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€In€authorizing€the€White€House€Conference,€Congress€had€made€"equality€ofÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€opportunity,€equal€access€to€all€aspects€of€society,€and€equal€rights€guaranteed€by€theÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€Constitution"€a€major€focus.€Pub.€L.€No.€93-516,€302,€88€Stat.€1631€(1974).€TheÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€White€House€Conference€reported€back€that€"[a]€review€of€past€and€currentÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€treatment€of€[individuals€with€disabilities]€by€all€branches€of€government€at€all€levelsÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€has,€however,€revealed€an€apparent€utter€disregard€or€distortion€of€these€basicÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€principles."€White€House€Conference€on€Handicapped€Individuals,€SpecialÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€Concerns:€State€White€House€Conference€Workbook,€59€(U.S.€Dept.€of€Health,Ì€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€Education,€and€Welfare,€Office€of€Human€Development,€undated).ÌÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€In€considering€the€ADA,€Congress€had€before€it€a€considerable€body€of€case€lawÐ   	 ð-@),   Ð€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€holding€various€forms€of€State€discrimination€on€the€basis€of€disability€to€be€violationsÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€of€the€Fourteenth€Amendment.€In€an€extensive€discussion€of€the€constitutionalÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€litigation€addressing€discrimination€on€the€basis€of€disability,€the€Commission€on€CivilÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€Rights€noted€that€"[t]he€most€frequently€used€constitutional€bases€are€the€guaranteesÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€of€equal€protection€of€the€law€and€due€process€of€the€law,"€and€devoted€some€fourÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€pages€of€its€Accommodating€the€Spectrum€report€to€discussing€the€implications€ofÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€the€Fourteenth€Amendment€guarantees€of€equal€protection€of€the€law€and€dueÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€process€of€law€to€discrimination€on€the€basis€of€disability.€Id.€at€62-66.€ÌÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€The€Commission€observed€that€both€the€equal€protection€and€due€process€clausesÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€had€been€successfully€used€in€litigation€to€secure€rights€for€people€with€disabilities.Ì€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€Id.€at€62,€64.€The€report€discussed€Fourteenth€Amendment€cases€in€which€plaintiffsÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€had€been€successful€in:€(1)€winning€the€right€to€equal€public€education€opportunities;Ì€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€(2)€challenging€commitment€procedures€and€conditions€of€confinement€in€mentalÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€institutions;€(3)€challenging€State€laws€permitting€criminal€defendants€deemedÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€mentally€incompetent€to€be€confined€indefinitely€without€trial;€(4)€challengingÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€restrictions€in€public€employment€opportunities;€(5)€establishing€a€right€of€personsÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€involuntary€committed€to€mental€retardation€facilities€to€reasonably€safe€conditions,Ì€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€freedom€from€unreasonable€bodily€restraints,€and€minimally€adequate€training;€(6)Ì€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€challenging€restrictions€upon€voting€rights€of€persons€with€mental€retardation;€(7)Ì€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€challenging€legal€restrictions€based€on€disability€in€occupancy€of€hotels€and€boardingÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€houses;€(8)€challenging€statutes€authorizing€involuntary€psychosurgery€and€shockÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€therapy;€(9)€challenging€statutes€authorizing€termination€of€parental€rights;€(10)Ì€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€challenging€involuntary€sterilization€procedures;€and€(11)€challenging€StateÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€institutions'€decision-making€procedures€regarding€life-prolonging€medicalÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€procedures.€Id.€at€63-66.ÌÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€See€also€White€House€Conference€on€Handicapped€Individuals,€SpecialÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€Concerns:€State€White€House€Conference€Workbook,€at€59€(presenting€a€similarÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€list€of€area€in€which€people€with€disabilities€had€sued€to€vindicate€rights);€U.S.Ì€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€Commission€on€Civil€Rights,€Civil€Rights€Issues€of€Handicapped€Americans:Ì€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€Public€Policy€Implications€at€39€(Statement€of€Charles€W.€Hoehne,€spokespersonÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€for€White€House€Conference)€("[a]€growing€body€of€judicial€decisions€is€establishingÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€that€constitutional€guarantees€of€equal€protection€and€due€process€extend€toÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€[individuals€with€disabilities]").ÌÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€The€discussion€of€Fourteenth€Amendment€litigation€challenging€discrimination€on€theÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€basis€of€disability€in€Accommodating€the€Spectrum,€while€extensive,€was€notÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€exhaustive€either€at€the€Supreme€Court€level€or€otherwise.€And€such€court€decisionsÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€continued€in€the€period€between€the€issuance€of€Accommodating€the€Spectrum€inÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€1983€and€the€passage€of€the€ADA€in€1990,€the€most€significant€of€which,€for€presentÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€purposes,€was€City€of€Cleburne€v.€Cleburne€Living€Ctr.,€473€U.S.€432€(1985),€inÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€which€the€Court€held€that€a€zoning€board's€denial€of€special€exception€to€permit€aÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€group€home€for€persons€with€mental€retardation€in€a€residential€neighborhood€wasÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€irrational€and€violated€the€Fourteenth€Amendment.€The€Cleburne€ruling€wasÐ   	 ð-@),   Ð€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€discussed€in€amicus's€analysis€of€its€original€proposal€to€Congress€that€an€ADAÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€should€be€enacted.€Toward€Independence,€App.€at€A-7.€The€Cleburne€decisionÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€makes€it€abundantly€clear€that€some€types€of€discriminatory€actions€by€governmentalÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€entities€violate€equal€protection€because€they€are€not€"rational."ÌÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€Petitioners€rely€strongly€on€the€fact€that€this€Court€ruled€in€Cleburne€that€personsÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€with€mental€retardation€do€not€constitute€a€suspect€class.€Petitioners'€Br.€at€25-27.Ì€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€Amicus€believes€that€exclusions€and€deprivations€visited€upon€people€because€ofÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€their€disabilities€should€be€accorded€some€degree€of€heightened€scrutiny€becauseÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€such€disadvantageous€treatment€is€often,€as€the€Court€observed€in€Cleburne,€theÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€product€of€"negative€attitudes,"€"fear,"€and€"irrational€prejudice."€Cleburne,€473€U.S.Ì€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€at€448,€450.€But,€as€Cleburne€demonstrates,€State€actions€that€discriminate€on€theÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€basis€of€disability€can€violate€the€Fourteenth€Amendment€without€heightenedÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€scrutiny.ÌÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€The€implication€of€Petitioners'€analysis€is€that€Congress€has€no€role€to€play€inÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€addressing€classifications€that€are€not€subject€to€heightened€scrutiny€under€the€equalÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€protection€clause.€But€in€situations€where,€as€with€disability,€"negative€attitudes"€andÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€"irrational€prejudice"€toward€a€class€of€citizens€have€become€the€accepted€practiceÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€and€the€standard€way€of€dealing€with€those€citizens,€and€have€become€ingrained€inÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€the€policies,€practices,€and€even€the€facilities€of€American€society,€includingÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€particularly€State€governments€and€their€components,€Congress€is€exercising€aÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€fundamentally€important€role€under€the€Fourteenth€Amendment€when€it€identifiesÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€and€prohibits€such€irrational€actions.ÌÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€II.€In€Considering€and€Passing€the€ADA,€Congress€Negotiated€and€Crafted€Modest,Ì€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€Congruent,€and€Proportional€Remedies€for€Irrational€and€Unfair€Discrimination€onÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€the€Basis€of€Disability.ÌÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€A.€The€ADA€Prohibits€Irrational€and€Unfair€Discrimination€by€the€States.ÌÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€The€ADA€was€concerned€with€prohibiting€"unnecessary"€and€"unfair"€unequalÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€treatment€of€people€with€disabilities.€42€U.S.C.€ðð€12101(a)(9).€See€also€TowardÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€Independence,€App.€at€A-3€("Discrimination€consists€of€the€unnecessary€and€unfairÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€deprivation€of€an€opportunity€because€of€some€characteristic€of€a€person.€It€is€theÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€antithesis€of€equal€opportunity.");€id.€at€19€("unfair€or€unnecessary€exclusion€orÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€disadvantage").ÌÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€Congress€understood€that,€except€in€those€limited€circumstances€where€disabilityÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€actually€prevents€participation,€excluding€individuals€based€on€disability€isÏintrinsicallyÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€irrational€and€unfair,€and€that€lesser€types€of€discrimination€prohibited€by€theÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€ADA--such€as€unjustified€segregation;€relegation€to€lesser€services,€programs,Ì€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€activities,€benefits,€jobs,€or€other€opportunities;€and€overprotective€rules€andÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€policies--are€irrational€because€they€penalize€people€for€a€characteristic€that€they€areÐ   	 ð-@),   Ð€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€unable€to€change€and€that€does€not€inherently€prevent€them€from€participating€on€anÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€equal€basis.€Thus€one€of€the€ADA€findings€was€that€"individuals€with€disabilities€.€.€.Ì€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€have€been€faced€with€restrictions€and€limitations€.€.€.€based€on€characteristics€thatÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€are€beyond€the€control€of€each€individual€and€resulting€from€stereotypic€assumptionsÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€not€truly€indicative€of€the€individual€ability€of€such€individuals€to€participate€.€.€."€42Ì€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€U.S.C.€ðð€12101(a)(7).(15)ÌÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€In€addition,€exclusions€and€relegations€to€lesser€status€and€opportunities€on€the€basisÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€of€disability€usually€occur€without€the€opportunity€for€the€person€being€excluded€orÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€disadvantaged€to€be€heard€to€challenge€the€unequal€treatment€as€unfair€andÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€unnecessary.€This,€along€with€the€"fundamental€unfairness"€involved€in€manyÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€instances€of€State€actions€disadvantaging€people€because€of€their€disabilities,€raisesÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€substantial€due€process€concerns.€ÌÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€Congress€concluded€that€irrational€denials€of€equality€by€state€actors€violate€theÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€Equal€Protection€Clause€of€the€Fourteenth€Amendment.€And€state€and€localÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€government's€arbitrary€and€summary€deprivations€of€substantial€rights€andÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€opportunities€without€a€chance€to€be€heard€in€opposition€violate€due€processÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€requirements€of€procedural€protections€and€"fundamental€fairness."ÌÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€B.€Simply€Proscribing€Intentional€Differential€Treatment€Because€of€DisabilityÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€Would€Achieve€a€Mere€Facade€of€Formal€Equality,€Not€Real€Equality€in€the€Form€ofÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€Meaningful€Equal€Opportunity.ÌÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€One€of€the€key€lessons€that€Congress€derived€from€its€twenty-five€years€of€studyÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€and€field-testing(16)€of€disability€nondiscrimination€laws€was€that€a€broadly-wordedÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€prohibition€of€discrimination€on€the€basis€of€disability--a€simple€requirement€thatÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€"Thou€shalt€not€discriminate"--is€not€sufficient€to€address€such€discrimination.Ì€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€Congress€enacted€the€ADA€with€an€express€purpose€"to€provide€clear,€strong,Ì€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€consistent,€and€enforceable€standards€addressing€discrimination€against€individualsÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€with€disabilities,"€42€U.S.C.€ðð€12101(b)(2).ÌÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€In€going€beyond€an€ineffective,€broad€renunciation€of€inequality€on€the€basis€ofÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€disability,€Congress€put€into€action€what€it€had€learned€about€the€nature€and€forms€ofÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€disability€discrimination€during€its€quarter€century€of€study.€Petitioners€urge,Ì€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€however,€that€the€ADA's€"disparate-effect€and€reasonable-accommodationÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€requirements€far€exceed€the€minimal€strictures€of€rational-basis€review."€Petitioners'Ì€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€Br.€at€29.(17)€This€contention€reflects€a€superficial€misunderstanding€of€these€ADAÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€requirements€and€their€role€in€eliminating€irrational€and€unfair€discrimination.€Both€ofÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€the€cited€provisions€demand€no€more€of€States€than€rational€and€fair€conduct.€ItÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€should€be€noted,€however,€that€even€if€a€particular€requirement€of€the€statute€didÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€exceed€the€limits€of€congressional€authority€to€some€degree,€that€would€only€justify€aÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€judicial€restriction€or€excision€of€the€overextended€portion€of€the€provision,Ì€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€particularly€since€the€ADA€contains€a€severability€provision.€42€U.S.C.€ðð€12213.€ItÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€would€not€invalidate€congressional€authority€to€regulate€the€extensive€remainingÐ   	 ð-@),   Ð€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€areas€of€States'€conduct€that€do€fall€within€Congress's€section€5€authority.ÌÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€1.€Identical€Treatment€Can€Result€in€Discrimination.ÌÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€A€meeting€of€a€city€council€may€be€"equally€open€to€all"€in€one€sense,€but€if€it€is€heldÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€in€an€auditorium€that€can€only€be€entered€by€going€up€a€flight€of€stairs€it€offers€noÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€chance€of€equal€participation€for€a€person€who€uses€a€wheelchair.€A€blind€personÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€who€has€rushed€to€a€public€hospital€for€a€medical€emergency€may€have€an€"equal"Ì€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€opportunity€to€receive€the€"informed€consent"€documents€describing€risks€ofÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€treatment,€but€the€gesture€will€not€have€any€real€meaning€if€there€is€no€one€who€willÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€read€the€documents€to€the€patient€or€make€them€available€in€an€alternative€format.Ì€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€Verbal€instructions€regarding€a€State€civil€service€test€may€be€articulated€"equally"€toÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€all,€but€will€be€of€no€avail€to€a€test-taker€who€is€deaf.€These€are€simple€examples€ofÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€the€fact€that€treating€everyone€identically€and€ignoring€the€existence€of€disabilitiesÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€may€appear€to€treat€all€persons€the€same,€but€would€in€fact€represent€drastic€denialsÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€of€equality€to€some€people€because€of€their€disabilities.€As€the€Civil€RightsÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€Commission€has€noted,€"[s]uch€an€approach€[of€identical€treatment]€would€give€theÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€form,€but€not€the€substance€of€equal€opportunity."€Accommodating€the€Spectrum€atÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€99.€ÌÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€In€Alexander€v.€Choate,€supra,€the€Court€indicated€that,€in€the€context€of€SectionÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€504€in€its€application€to€state€activities,€"meaningful€access"€was€required,€and€thatÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€"to€assure€meaningful€access,€reasonable€accommodations€in€the€grantee's€programÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€or€benefit€may€have€to€be€made."€469€U.S.€at€301.€ADA€Committee€reports€indicateÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€expressly€that€Title€II's€prohibition€of€discrimination€on€the€basis€of€disability€is€to€beÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€interpreted€consistently€with€the€decision€in€Alexander€v.€Choate.€S.€Rep.€No.Ì€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€101-116,€at€44€(1989);€H.R.€Rep.€No.€101-485,€pt.€2,€at€84€(1990).€For€the€ADA€toÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€provide€real€equality,€therefore,€such€requirements€as€reasonable€accommodation,Ì€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€barrier€removal,€and€auxiliary€aids€had€to€be€essential€components;€identicalÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€treatment€would€not€suffice.ÌÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€2.€Exclusion€and€Other€Egregious€Deprivations€on€the€Basis€of€Disability€OftenÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€Occur€in€the€Absence€of€Hostile€Animus.ÌÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€The€Court€made€an€observation€in€Alexander€v.€Choate,€469€U.S.€287€(1985),€inÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€the€context€of€Section€504€that€is€equally€true€in€the€Fourteenth€Amendment€contextÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€of€the€ADA:€"much€of€the€conduct€that€Congress€sought€to€alter€...€would€be€difficultÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€if€not€impossible€to€reach€were€the€Act€construed€to€proscribe€only€conduct€fueledÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€by€a€discriminatory€intent."€Id.€at€296-97.€The€Court€cited€architectural€andÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€transportation€barriers€as€examples€of€forms€of€discrimination€that€needed€to€beÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€eliminated€whether€or€not€they€were€erected€with€an€intent€of€excluding€people€withÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€disabilities.€Id.€at€297.€Simply€proscribing€intentional€differential€treatment€on€theÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€basis€of€disability€would€leave€in€place€most€of€the€barriers,€practices,€and€policiesÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€that€deprive€people€of€equal€participation€in€State€services,€programs,€and€jobÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€opportunities€because€of€disability.Ð   	 ð-@),   Ð‡€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€To€a€person€who€uses€a€wheelchair€and€is€confronted€by€a€flight€of€stairs€that€makesÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€it€impossible€to€enter€the€State€employment€application€office,€it€makes€no€differenceÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€whatever€whether€those€stairs€were€designed€and€constructed€with€a€deliberateÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€intent€to€keep€people€in€wheelchairs€out€or€whether€they€were€designed€andÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€constructed€without€any€thought€at€all€about€their€effect€on€persons€who€useÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€wheelchairs.€A€law€that€sought€to€enforce€equality€by€declaring€only€the€provablyÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€intentional€barriers€illegal€would€miss€the€mark€almost€entirely,€because€it€would€be€aÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€rare€case€in€which€the€designers€and€constructors€of€State€facilities€would€generateÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€documentation€or€demonstrable€evidence€that€they€were€openly€hostile€to€peopleÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€who€use€wheelchairs.ÌÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€Other€language€of€the€Court€in€Alexander€v.€Choate€indicates€that,€whileÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€"well-cataloged€instances€of€invidious€discrimination"€against€the€disabled€exist,€id.€atÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€n.12,€discrimination€on€the€basis€of€disability€may€be€the€result€of€apathetic€attitudesÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€rather€than€affirmative€animus,"€id.€at€296.€Nevertheless,€treatment€of€people€withÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€disabilities€is€"one€of€the€country's€'shameful€oversights'"€and€constitutes€"glaringÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€neglect,"€id.,€quoting€117€Cong.€Rec.€45974€(1971)€(statement€of€Rep.€Vanik)€andÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€118€Cong.€Rec.€526€(statement€of€Rep.€Percy).€Such€inattention€is€not€a€neutral,Ì€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€rational€act;€it€is€based€upon€prejudice,€stereotypes,€and€callous€indifference--anÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€assumption€that€people€with€disabilities€will€not€participate.(18)ÌÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€For€State€and€local€governments€to€ignore€the€existence€of€people€with€disabilities€inÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€planning€and€structuring€their€services€and€programs,€and€in€designing€and€erectingÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€their€facilities,€goes€well€beyond€inadvertence€and€simple€negligence€and€amounts€toÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€reckless€indifference€or€a€form€of€intentionality--a€looking€away€and€denying€theÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€existence€of€persons€with€disabilities€in€the€face€of€abundant€evidence€to€theÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€contrary.(19)ÌÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€People€with€disabilities€are€inevitably€part€of€the€citizenry€whom€state€and€localÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€governments€are€charged€with€serving,€many€of€which€are€taxpayers€for€suchÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€services.€It€is€totally€foreseeable€that€some€potential€public€workers€will,€because€ofÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€disabilities,€need€reasonable€adjustments€to€workplaces€designed,€withÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€one-size-fits-all€assumptions,€for€those€without€disabilities.€It€is€totally€foreseeableÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€that€some€capable€and€qualified€workers€with€respiratory€and€other€conditions€will€beÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€needlessly€excluded€if€a€State€agency€unnecessarily€allows€carbon€monoxide€fumesÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€in€its€vehicles€and€cigarette€smoke€in€its€work€facilities,€as€is€alleged€by€Mr.€Ash€inÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€this€case.ÌÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€Moreover,€an€effective€law€prohibiting€unfair€and€irrational€discrimination€mustÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€require€the€dismantling€of€practices€and€structures€excluding€or€disadvantagingÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€persons€with€disabilities€that€are€"literally€been€built€into€the€physical€environment,"Ì€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€Toward€Independence,€App.€at€A-3,€or€in€the€accepted€policies€and€practices€ofÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€agencies€that€have€a€tendency€to€endure,€often€outliving€their€original€rationale,€in€theÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€tradition€of€"things€have€always€been€done€that€way."€Accommodating€theÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€Spectrum€at€91.€A€prejudiced,€erroneous€belief€that€deaf€people€cannot€drive€safelyÐ   	 ð-@),   Ð€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€or€that€blind€people€cannot€be€attorneys€may€be€perpetuated€in€a€formal€rule€or€anÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€unwritten€policy,€and€may€guide€the€actions€of€a€State€agency€long€after€theÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€originator€of€the€rule€or€policy€has€left€the€agency€or€died.€Such€entrenchedÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€mechanisms€of€discrimination€continue€to€operate€without€regard€to€whether€anyÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€current€or€prior€intent€to€discriminate€can€be€proven.ÌÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€C.€Congress€Negotiated€and€Crafted€Modest,€Congruent,€and€ProportionalÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€Requirements€and€Coverage.ÌÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€Congress€understood€that€something€beyond€simply€treating€everyone€exactly€theÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€same€and€ignoring€the€existence€of€disabilities€was€necessary€to€address€disabilityÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€discrimination,€particularly€since€"[s]ociety's€operations--from€its€sidewalks€to€itsÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€schoolrooms€and€its€jobs--ordinarily€are€designed€for€people€whose€abilities€fall€in€theÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€`normal'€range,"€and€"exclude€or€seriously€disadvantage"€people€not€within€theÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€"normal"€range.€Accommodating€the€Spectrum€at€161,€Conclusion€4.€ThisÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€recognition€led€Congress€to€include€in€the€ADA€key€provisions,€including€theÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€requirement€of€reasonable€accommodations,€the€requirement€of€barrier€removal,Ì€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€proscribing€standards€or€methods€administration€that€have€the€effect€ofÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€discrimination,€the€requirement€of€providing€auxiliary€aids,€and€the€prohibition€ofÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€discriminatory€qualification€standards€and€selection€criteria,€all€of€which€had€beenÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€developed€and€"test-driven"€under€prior€statutes€and€regulations.€In€Congress'€view,Ì€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€a€rational€public€entity€would€take€such€reasonable€steps€to€assure€meaningful€equalÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€participation€of€individuals€with€disabilities€in€all€of€its€jobs,€programs,€and€activities.Ì€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€The€reasonable€accommodation€provision,€for€example,€only€requires€States€to€makeÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€reasonable€modifications€to€"known"€limitations€and€does€not€require€any€action€thatÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€would€impose€an€"undue€hardship."€42€U.S.C.€ðð€12112(b)(5)(A).€For€governmentÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€entities€which€provide€various€accommodations€designed€for€employees€andÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€constituencies€without€disabilities(20)€to€refuse€to€make€reasonable€modifications€andÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€take€other€reasonable€steps€to€permit€the€equal€participation€of€citizens€withÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€disabilities€is€irrational€and€manifestly€unfair.ÌÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€These€provisions€were€carefully€fine-tuned€during€extensive€congressionalÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€consideration€and€debates.€For€a€description€of€negotiations€and€compromises,€see,Ì€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€e.g.,€135€Cong.€Rec.€S€10713€(Daily€Ed.€Sept.€7,€1989)€(statement€of€Sen.€Harkin);Ì€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€136€Cong.€Rec.€S€9686€(Daily€Ed.€July€13,€1990)€(statement€of€Sen.€Harkin);€135Ì€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€Cong.€Rec.€S€10715€(Daily€Ed.€Sept.€7,€1989)€(statement€of€Sen.€Hatch).;€136€Cong.Ì€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€Rec.€H€2429€(Daily€Ed.€May€17,€1990)€(statement€of€Rep.€Bartlett).ÌÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€Amicus€believes€that€its€original€version€of€the€ADA€was€a€moderate,€equitableÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€proposal.€Yet€Congress€saw€fit€to€ameliorate€many€of€the€standards€amicus€hadÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€proposed€and€to€craft€additional€defenses€and€limitations.€Far€from€making€ADAÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€standards€too€severe€and€thus€over-reaching€its€constitutional€authority,€amicus€isÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€convinced€that€Congress€moved€in€the€direction€of€crafting€standards€that€areÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€unnecessarily€lenient€and€limited.ÌÐ   	 ð-@),   Ð€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€Likewise,€amicus€considers€that€the€protection€of€the€statute€based€on€its€definitionÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€of€"disability,"€42€U.S.C.€ðð€12102(2),€as€construed€by€this€Court€in€Sutton€v.€UnitedÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€Airlines,€119€S.Ct.€2139€(1999);€Murphy€v.€United€Parcel€Service,€119€S.Ct.€2133Ì€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€(1999);€and€Albertsons,€Inc.€v.€Kirkingburg,€119€S.Ct.€2162€(1999),€and€byÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€numerous€lower€courts€is€not€only€not€incongruously€or€disproportionatelyÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€overextensive,€it€is€in€fact€overly€restrictive.€It€is€defendants,€not€plaintiffs,€who€areÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€predominantly€successful€in€ADA€litigation.€The€ADA's€requirements€and€coverageÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€certainly€are€not€incongruous€or€disproportionate€in€relation€to€the€serious€pattern€ofÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€State€discrimination€they€address.ÌÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€CONCLUSIONÌÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€The€ADA€is€sound€legislation,€based€upon€careful€congressional€consideration€andÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€an€extraordinarily€extensive€documentary€and€informational€record.€Unlike€what€mayÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€have€been€the€situation€in€other€cases€the€Court€has€heard€in€recent€years,€inÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€deciding€to€apply€the€ADA€to€the€States,€Congress€did€its€homework.€To€invalidateÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€this€effort€would€be€to€frustrate€the€considered€deliberate€judgment€of€a€nearlyÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€unanimous€Congress,€to€ignore€the€strong€support€of€the€Executive€Branch,€and€toÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€frustrate€the€will€of€the€strong€majority€of€American€citizens€who€support€the€ADA.Ì€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€Appropriate€are€the€words€of€Representative€Dellums,€who,€on€the€day€that€theÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€ADA€was€passing€by€an€overwhelming€margin€in€the€House€of€Representatives,Ì€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€declared:ÌÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€It€is€at€times€like€these,€Mr.€Speaker,€when€I€am€proud€to€be€aÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€Member€of€this€body.€We€must€remember€that€we€are€empoweredÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€with€a€special€responsibility€by€the€14th€amendment€to€the€ConstitutionÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€to€ensure€that€every€citizen,€not€just€those€of€particular€ethnic€groups,Ì€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€not€just€those€who€arguably€are€"able-bodied,"€not€just€those€who€ownÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€property--but€every€citizen€shall€enjoy€the€equal€protection€of€the€laws.ÌÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€Indeed,€as€the€Supreme€Court€has€noted:ÌÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€It€is€fundamental€that€in€no€organ€of€government,€state€or€federal,€doesÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€there€repose€a€more€comprehensive€remedial€power€than€in€theÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€Congress,€expressly€charged€by€the€Constitution€with€competence€andÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€authority€to€enforce€equal€protection€guarantees.ÌÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€136€Cong.€Rec.€H2639€(Daily€Ed.€May€22,€1990)€(statement€of€Rep.€Dellums)Ì€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€(quoting€Fullilove€v.€Klutznick,€448€U.S.€448,€483€(1980).ÌÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€For€the€foregoing€reasons,€amicus€respectfully€urges€the€Court€to€affirm€the€decisionÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€of€the€United€States€Court€of€Appeals€for€the€Eleventh€Circuit.ÌÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€Respectfully€submitted,ÌÐ   	 ð-@),   Ð€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€ROBERT€L.€BURGDORF€JR.Ì€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€University€of€the€District€of€ColumbiaÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€David€A.€Clarke€School€of€LawÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€4250€Connecticut€Avenue,€N.W.Ì€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€Building€38,€Room€204Ì€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€Washington,€DC€20008Ì€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€(202)€274-7334ÌÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€Counsel€of€Record€for€Amicus€CuriaeÌÌÌÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€AppendixÌÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€Congressionally€Commissioned€Studies€of€DiscriminationÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€on€the€Basis€of€DisabilityÌÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€(1)€National€Commission€on€Architectural€BarriersÌÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€Agency:ÌÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€National€Commission€on€Architectural€Barriers€to€Rehabilitation€of€theÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€Handicapped.ÌÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€Established:ÌÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€Vocational€Rehabilitation€Act€Amendments€of€1965,€Pub.€L.€No.Ì€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€89-333,€79€Stat.€1282€(1965).ÌÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€Mission:ÌÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€To€conduct€a€three-year€study€of€the€extent€to€which€architecturalÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€barriers€prevented€access€to€public€buildings€and€to€propose€measuresÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€to€eliminate€existing€barriers€and€prevent€new€ones€from€being€created.ÌÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€Relevant€Report:ÌÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€Design€for€All€Americans:€Report€of€the€National€Commission€onÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€Architectural€Barriers€to€Rehabilitation€of€the€Handicapped€(U.S.Ì€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€Department€of€Health,€Education,€and€Welfare,€1967).ÌÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€Overall€Relevant€Results:ÌÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€Described€"unnecessary€barriers:€a€stairway,€a€too-narrow€door,€aÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€too-high€telephone"€as€"unnecessary€obstacles€that€prevent€millions€ofÐ   	 ð-@),   Ð€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€people€with€disabilities€from€functioning€adequately€and€beingÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€productive,"€and€included€a€series€of€recommendations€for€eliminatingÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€and€avoiding€the€creation€of€architectural€barriers.€Id.€at€2.€Follow-upÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€Senate€and€House€Committee€hearings€in€1967€and€1968€(21)€ultimatelyÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€produced€the€Architectural€Barriers€Act€of€1968.€Pub.€L.€No.€90-480,Ì€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€ðð€1,€82€Stat.€718€(1968),€codified€as€amended€at€42€U.S.C.€ððððÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€4151-57.ÌÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€(2)€White€House€ConferenceÌÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€Agency:€ÌÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€White€House€Conference€on€Handicapped€Individuals.ÌÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€Established:ÌÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€White€House€Conference€on€Handicapped€Individuals€Act,€Pub.€L.Ì€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€No.€93-516,€ðððð€300-306,€88€Stat.€1631€(1974).ÌÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€Mission:ÌÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€To€convene€a€national€gathering€"to€develop€recommendations€andÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€stimulate€a€national€assessment€of€problems,€and€solutions€to€suchÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€problems,€facing€individuals€with€[disabilities],"€id.,€ðð€302,€with€equalÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€protection€as€a€key€focus,€id.,€ðð€301(4).ÌÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€Relevant€Reports:ÌÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€(a)€White€House€Conference€on€Handicapped€Individuals,Ì€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€Summary€Final€Report€(U.S.€Dept.€of€Health,€Education,€andÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€Welfare,€Office€of€Human€Development,€undated€[1978]);ÌÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€(b)€White€House€Conference€on€Handicapped€Individuals,€VolumeÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€Three:€Implementation€Plan€61€(1978);€andÌÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€(c)€White€House€Conference€on€Handicapped€Individuals,€SpecialÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€Concerns:€State€White€House€Conference€Workbook,€59€(U.S.Ì€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€Dept.€of€Health,€Education,€and€Welfare,€Office€of€HumanÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€Development,€undated€[1977]).ÌÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€Overall€Relevant€Results:ÌÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€Convened€national€meeting€of€approximately€3,700€individuals€fromÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€every€state€and€U.S.€territory,€representing€over€100,000€people€whoÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€attended€local,€state,€and€territorial€conferences,€in€Washington,€DC,€inÐ   	 ð-@),   Ð€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€May€1977.€Final€Report€of€the€Conference€to€the€President€and€theÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€Congress€presented€815€formal€recommendations€addressing€287Ì€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€issues.ÌÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€(3)€Commission€on€Civil€RightsÌÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€Agency:€ÌÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€United€States€Commission€on€Civil€Rights.ÌÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€Established:ÌÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€Pub.€L.€No.€95-444,€92€Stat.€1067€(1978)€(added€"discrimination€on€theÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€basis€of€handicap"€to€the€Commission's€areas€of€jurisdiction).ÌÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€Mission:ÌÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€To€study€and€collect€information€concerning€legal€developmentsÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€constituting€discrimination€because€of,€inter€alia,€"handicap;"€serve€asÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€a€national€clearinghouse€of€information€on€such€discrimination;€andÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€submit€reports,€findings,€and€recommendations€to€the€President€andÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€Congress.ÌÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€Relevant€Reports:ÌÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€(a)€Accommodating€the€Spectrum€of€Individual€Abilities€(1983);€andÌÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€(b)€U.S.€Commission€on€Civil€Rights,€Civil€Rights€Issues€ofÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€Handicapped€Americans:€Public€Policy€Implications€(1980)€(recordÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€of€"consultation"€receiving€testimony€of€30€"selected€authorities,Ì€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€advocates,€consumers,€and€practitioners€who€are€acknowledgedÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€experts,"€id.€at€1).ÌÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€Overall€Relevant€Results:ÌÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€Surveyed€the€types€of€discrimination€people€with€disabilitiesÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€encountered€and€provided€both€a€summary€of€case€law€and€aÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€conceptual€framework€for€understanding€and€addressing€discriminationÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€on€the€basis€of€disability.ÌÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€(4)€National€Council€on€DisabilityÌÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€Agency:ÌÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€National€Council€on€Disability.Ð   	 ð-@),   Ð‡€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€Established:ÌÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€Pub.€L.€No.€98-221,€tit.€I,€ðð€142,€98€Stat.€27€(1984)€(codified€asÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€amended€at€29€U.S.C.€ðð€781).ÌÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€Mission:ÌÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€To€review€federal€laws€and€programs€affecting€people€with€disabilitiesÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€and€make€recom-mendations€regarding€ways€to€make€such€laws€andÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€programs€more€effective.ÌÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€Relevant€Reports:ÌÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€(a)€Toward€Independence€(1986);€and€ÌÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€(b)€On€the€Threshold€of€Independence€(Andrea€H.€Farbman€ed.,Ì€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€1988).ÌÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€Overall€Relevant€Results:ÌÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€Described€need€for€and€concept€of€proposed€new€law€to€be€called€theÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€Americans€with€Disabilities€Act;€developed€and€published€originalÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€version€of€the€ADA€introduced€in€Congress€in€1988.ÌÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€(5)€Advisory€Commission€on€Intergovernmental€RelationsÌÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€Agency:ÌÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€Advisory€Commission€on€Intergovernmental€Relations.ÌÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€Established:ÌÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€Pub.€L.€No.€86-380,€73€Stat.€703€(1959).ÌÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€Mission:ÌÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€To€study€the€relationship€among€local,€state,€and€federal€governmentsÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€in€the€American€federal€system€and€to€recommend€improvements.ÌÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€Relevant€Reports:ÌÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€Disability€Rights€Mandates:€Federal€and€State€Compliance€withÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€Employment€Protections€and€Architectural€Barrier€RemovalÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€(1989).ÌÐ   	 ð-@),   Ð€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€Overall€Relevant€Results:€ÌÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€Identified€various€barriers€to€governmental€compliance€with€disabilityÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€rights€mandates,€and€reported€results€of€survey€of€State€officialsÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€regarding€their€assessment€of€impediments€to€employment€of€personsÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€with€disabilities€in€State€government.ÌÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€(6)€GAO€Accommodations€StudyÌÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€Agency:ÌÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€General€Accounting€Office€(GAO).ÌÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€Established:ÌÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€Request€to€GAO€by€members€of€Congress€in€January€1990.ÌÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€Mission:ÌÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€To€provide€information€about€the€costs€of€workplace€accommodationsÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€and€of€avoiding€or€removing€architectural,€transportation,€andÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€communication€barriers,€to€assist€in€congressional€consideration€of€theÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€ADA.ÌÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€Relevant€Report:ÌÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€U.S.€General€Accounting€Office,€Persons€with€Disabilities:€ReportsÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€on€Costs€of€Accommodations,€A€Briefing€Report€to€CongressionalÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€Requesters€(January€4,€1990).ÌÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€Overall€Relevant€Results:ÌÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€Conducted€literature€review€of€published€studies€going€back€to€1975,Ì€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€queried€wide€range€of€industry€groups€and€disability€organizations,€andÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€identified€twelve€reports€with€relevant€information,€of€which€all€but€oneÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€were€either€conducted€by€or€funded€under€contract€by€a€federalÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€government€agency.ÌÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€(7)€Task€Force€on€Rights€and€EmpowermentÌÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€Agency:ÌÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€Task€Force€on€the€Rights€and€Empowerment€of€Americans€withÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€Disabilities.ÌÐ   	 ð-@),   Ð€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€Established:ÌÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€Appointed€by€the€Chairman€of€the€House€Subcommittee€on€SelectÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€Education€in€May€1988.ÌÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€Mission:ÌÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€To€gather€information€on€the€extent€and€nature€of€disabilityÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€discrimination.ÌÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€Relevant€Reports:ÌÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€(a)€Eleven€interim€reports€submitted€to€Congress€and€testimonyÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€provided€at€hearings€on€the€ADA€in€both€the€House€and€Senate;(22)Ì€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€andÌÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€(b)€From€ADA€to€Empowerment;€The€Report€of€the€Task€Force€onÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€the€Rights€and€Empowerment€of€Americans€with€DisabilitiesÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€(1990).ÌÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€Overall€Relevant€Results:€ÌÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€Conducted€63€public€forums€around€the€country€attended€by€over€7,000Ì€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€persons€with€disabilities,€their€families,€advocates€and€serviceÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€providers;€concluded€generally€that€Americans€with€disabilities€faceÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€"massive,€society-wide€discrimination€and€paternalism."€Id.€at€18,€19.ÌÌÌÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€1€Pursuant€to€this€Court's€Rule€37.6,€none€of€the€parties€authored€this€brief€in€wholeÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€or€in€part€and€no€one€other€than€amicus€or€counsel€contributed€money€or€services€toÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€the€preparation€and€submission€of€this€brief.€ÌÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€2€Sutton€v.€United€Airlines,€119€S.Ct.€2139,€2147-48€(1999)€(recognizing€theÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€Council€and€its€then€staff€person,€the€author€of€this€brief,€as€having€proposed€andÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€written€the€original€version€of€the€ADA).ÌÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€3€The€Council€was€initially€named€the€National€Council€on€the€Handicapped.€ItsÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€name€was€changed€to€the€National€Council€on€Disability€in€1988.€Pub.€L.€No.Ì€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€100-630,€tit.€II,€ðð€205(a),€102€Stat.€3310€(1988).ÌÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€4€See€S.€Rep.€No.€101-116,€at€4-5€(1989)€(listing€4€committee€and€subcommitteeÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€hearings€in€101st€Cong.,€and€a€joint€committee€hearing€in€100th€Cong.);€H.R.€Rep.Ì€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€No.€101-485,€pt.€2,€at€24-28€(1990)€(listing€4€committee€and€subcommittee€hearingsÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€in€101st€Cong.,€and€a€subcommittee€hearing€and€a€joint€committee€hearing€in€100thÐ   	 ð-@),   Ð€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€Cong.);€H.R.€Rep.€No.€101-485,€pt.€3,€at€24€(1990)€(listing€4€committee€andÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€subcommittee€hearings€in€101st€Cong.);€H.R.€Rep.€No.€101-485,€pt.€4,€at€28-29Ì€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€(1990)€(listing€2€subcommittee€hearings€in€101st€Cong.).€The€report€of€the€HouseÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€Committee€on€Public€Works€and€Transportation,€H.R.€Rep.€No.€101-485,€pt.€1Ì€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€(1990)€does€not€describe€its€hearings,€but€two€subcommittee€hearings€were€held€inÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€the€101st€Congress.€See€Americans€with€Disabilities€Act:€Hearings€on€H.R.€2273Ì€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€Before€the€Subcomm.€on€Surface€Transportation€of€the€House€Comm.€onÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€Public€Works€and€Transportation,€101st€Cong.€(1990).ÌÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€5€For€example,€three€reports€of€the€Congressional€Research€Service€were€cited€asÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€authority€in€amicus's€report€proposing€the€ADA.€Toward€Independence,€App.€atÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€A-59€to€A-60€(1986),€citing€Nancy€Lee€Jones,€Judicial€Decisions€DiscussingÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€"Program€or€Activity€Receiving€Federal€Funds"€Under€Section€504€of€theÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€Rehabilitation€Act€Before€and€After€Grove€City€College€v.€Bell,€CongressionalÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€Research€Service,€The€Library€of€Congress€(1985);€Nancy€Lee€Jones,€Overview€ofÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€Major€Issues€Under€Section€504€of€the€Rehabilitation€Act,€CongressionalÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€Research€Service,€The€Library€of€Congress€(1985);€Nancy€Lee€Jones,€ProposedÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€Coverage€of€Handicapped€Persons€By€Title€VII€of€the€Civil€Rights€Act:€AnÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€Analysis€of€H.R.€370,€Congressional€Research€Service,€The€Library€of€CongressÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€(1985).ÌÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€6€See€S.€Rep.€No.€101-116,€at€4,€6,€8-9,€16,€17€(1989);€Americans€with€DisabilitiesÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€Act€of€1989:€Hearings€on€S.€933€Before€the€Senate€Committee€on€Labor€andÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€Human€Resources€and€the€Subcommittee€on€the€Handicapped,€101st€Cong.€atÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€18-20,€252-58€(1989);€H.R.€Rep.€No.€101-485,€pt.€2,€at€25,€26,€27-28€(1990);Ì€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€Americans€with€Disabilities€Act€of€1988:€Hearing€on€H.R.€4498€Before€theÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€Subcommittee€on€Select€Education€of€the€House€Committee€on€Education€andÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€Labor,€100th€Cong.€at€1038-43,€1328-35€(1988);€From€ADA€to€Empowerment:€TheÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€Report€of€the€Task€Force€on€Rights€and€Empowerment€of€Americans€withÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€Disabilities,€at€18€(1990).ÌÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€7€Id.€at€27-29.ÌÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€8€Id.€at€32-35.ÌÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€9€Id.€at€36-37.ÌÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€10€Id.€at€39.ÌÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€11€Id.€at€38-39.ÌÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€12€Accommodating€the€Spectrum€at€38-39,€citing€Noakes€Associates€Architects,Ì€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€Access€Maryland:€Handicapped€Accessibility€Survey€(prepared€under€StateÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€contract)€(1980),€p.€17.ÌÐ   	 ð-@),   Ð€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€13€Likewise,€the€congressional€Task€Force€on€the€Rights€and€Empowerment€ofÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€Americans€with€Disabilities€found€that€"[t]raditional€attitudes€have€resulted€inÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€widespread€laxity€in€the€implementation€of€existing€disability€rights€and€servicesÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€legislation."€From€ADA€to€Empowerment€at€20.€ÌÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€14€Recognizing€that€a€discussion€of€all€facets€of€discrimination€on€the€basis€ofÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€disability€was€"beyond€the€scope€of"€its€report,€id.€at€40,€the€Commission€added€anÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€appendix€in€which€it€provided€an€outline€of€many€areas€of€discrimination.€In€additionÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€to€areas€of€State€discrimination€already€mentioned,€the€Appendix€lists€discriminatoryÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€competency€and€guardianship€laws,€id.,€App.€A,€item€V;€denials€of€access€to€publicÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€housing,€id.,€App.€A,€item€VII.1;€discriminatory€zoning€obstacles,€id.,€App.€A,€itemÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€VII.2;€overly€protective€fire€codes€and€other€regulations,€id.,€App.€A,€item€VII.5;Ì€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€and€inequities€in€the€criminal€justice€system€regarding€the€apprehension,€questioning,Ì€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€trial,€and€post-conviction€treatment€of€persons€with€disabilities,€id.,€App.€A,€itemÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€VII.5.€The€Commission€cautioned€that€the€areas€of€discrimination€listed€were€"notÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€exhaustive."€Id.€at€165.ÌÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€15€Discrimination€by€the€States€carries€an€extra€element€of€irrationality,€because€ofÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€the€States'€fiscal€and€legal€responsibilities.€Denials€of€public€employmentÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€opportunities,€or€of€employment-related€services€such€as€public€transportation€or€jobÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€training€programs,€because€of€potential€workers'€disabilities,€bring€with€them€aÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€statistically€strong€likelihood€that€the€State€will€end€up€paying€income€support€forÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€jobless€people€with€disabilities,€as€well€as€losing€potential€income€tax€revenue€theÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€individuals€would€have€paid€if€employed,€and€potential€sales€tax€revenue€from€theirÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€spending€if€they€had€been€employed.€Financial€consequences€were€frequentÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€considerations€during€ADA€deliberations.€See,€e.g.,€42€U.S.C.€ðð€12101(a)(9)€(ADAÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€finding€that€"the€continuing€existence€of€unfair€and€unnecessary€discrimination€andÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€prejudice€.€.€.€costs€the€United€States€billions€of€dollars€in€unnecessary€expensesÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€resulting€from€dependency€and€nonproductivity";€Toward€Independence€at€viÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€(estimating€annual€federal€expenditures€for€disability€at€over€$60€billion);€From€ADAÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€to€Empowerment€at€27€(quoting€President€Bush's€estimate€that€"when€you€addÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€together€federal,€state,€local,€and€private€funds,€it€costs€almost€$200€billion€annually€toÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€support€Americans€with€disabilities--in€effect€to€keep€them€dependent").ÌÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€16€Key€elements€of€the€nondiscrimination€requirement,€such€as€reasonableÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€accommodation,€auxiliary€aids,€and€restrictions€on€disability€inquiries,€were€initiallyÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€developed€and€field-tested€in€federal€regulations€issued,€with€the€benefit€of€formalÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€public€comment,€under€Sections€501,€503,€and€504€of€the€Rehabilitation€Act€of€1973,Ì€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€29€U.S.C.€ðððð€791,€793,€&€794a.€Similarly,€the€Fair€Housing€Amendments€Act€ofÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€1988,€Pub.€L.€No.€100-430,€102€Stat.1619,€broke€new€ground€in€establishing€aÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€statutory€"reasonable€accommodation"€requirement,€42€U.S.C.€ðð€3604(f)(3)(B),Ì€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€prohibiting€discrimination€against€someone€because€he€or€she€associates€with€aÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€person€who€has€a€disability,€id.€ðððð€3604(f)(2)(B)-(C),€and€imposing€accessibilityÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€standards€on€the€design€and€future€construction€of€covered€facilities,€id.€ððÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€3604(f)(3)(C)€-€all€concepts€that€would€play€important€roles€in€the€ADA.Ð   	 ð-@),   Ð‡€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€Regarding€the€coverage€of€State€and€local€governments,€the€Civil€Rights€RestorationÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€Act€of€1987,€Pub.€L.€No.€100-259,€102€Stat.€28€(1988),€added€a€definition€ofÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€"program€or€activity"€to,€inter€alia,€Section€504€of€the€Rehabilitation€Act€of€1973.€TheÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€amended€definition€expanded€Section€504's€coverage€of€State€and€local€governmentÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€bodies€by€clarifying€that€all€of€the€operations€of€a€department€or€agency€that€receivesÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€federal€funds€are€covered,€regardless€of€how€separate€they€may€be€from€theÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€federally€assisted€project€or€activity;€and€that€if€a€state€or€local€department€or€agencyÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€receives€federal€funds€to€be€distributed€to€other€departments€or€agencies,€both€theÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€entity€that€distributes€the€funds€and€the€entities€that€receive€the€funds€are€covered.Ì€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€29€U.S.C.€ðððð€794(b)(1)(A)-(B).€See€S.€Rep.€No.€64€100th€Cong.,€2d€Sess.€16Ì€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€(1988)€(Labor€and€Human€Resources€Committee),€reprinted€in€1988€U.S.C.C.A.N.Ì€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€3,€18.ÌÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€17€Petitioners€also€mention€the€ADA€requirement€on€a€State€"to€make€'reasonableÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€modifications'€in€its€public€services€to€accommodate€the€disabled€unless€they€wouldÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€'fundamentally€alter'€the€nature€of€the€program."€Petitioners'€Br.€at€29.€It€may€beÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€helpful€to€clarify,€however,€that€the€potentially€more€difficult€or€expensive€types€ofÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€undertakings--physical€and€structural€modifications€and€providing€equipment,€devices,Ì€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€or€assistive€personnel--are€not€required€under€this€provision,€but€are€covered€in€theÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€program€accessibility€section€of€the€regulations€as€either€facility€accessibilityÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€modifications,€28€C.F.R.€ðð35.150,€or€as€"auxiliary€aids,"€id.,€ðð€35.160(b)(1).€In€bothÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€cases,€the€obligation€is€subject€to€a€defense€that€excuses€covered€entities€from€takingÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€any€action€that€causes€"undue€financial€and€administrative€burdens."€Id.,€ððððÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€35.150(a)(3),€35.164.€The€"reasonable€modifications"€provision€referred€to€by€theÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€Petitioners€addresses€less€difficult€and€less€potentially€costly€modifications€toÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€"policies,€practices,€and€procedures"€to€permit€a€particular€individual€with€a€disabilityÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€to€participate€equally.€Id.€ðð€35.130(b)(7).€Typically,€these€involve€relaxation€of€or€anÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€exception€to€some€general€rule€or€policy€that€would€otherwise€operate€to€exclude€aÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€qualified€individual€from€participation.ÌÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€18€One€of€the€Conclusions€of€the€Commission€on€Civil€Rights€was€that€"[a]lthoughÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€open€hostility€is€now€rare,€prejudice€against€[people€with€disabilities],€manifested€asÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€discomfort,€patronization,€pity,€stereotyping,€and€stigmatization,€remains€common."Ì€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€Accommodating€the€Spectrum€at€159,€Conclusion€2.ÌÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€19€See,€e.g.,€Task€Force€on€the€Rights€and€Empowerment€of€Americans€withÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€Disabilities,€From€ADA€to€Empowerment,€19€(1990)€(Task€Force€finding€thatÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€"[d]isability€has€become€a€predictable€part€of€the€normal€life€cycle€for€a€large€andÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€increasing€proportion€of€human€beings.")€In€the€words€of€one€federal€statute,Ì€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€"disability€is€a€normal€part€of€the€human€experience€.€.€."€29€U.S.C.€ðð€701(a)(3),€asÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€amended€by€Pub.€L.€No.€102-569,€tit.€I,€ðð101,€106€Stat.€4346.ÌÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€20€For€a€description€of€the€numerous€accommodations€that€businesses€andÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€government€facilities€routinely€provide€for€employees€without€disabilities,€see€RobertÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€L.€Burgdorf€Jr.,€"Substantially€limited"€Protection€from€DisabilityÐ   	 ð-@),   Ð€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€Discrimination:€The€Special€Treatment€Model€and€Misconstructions€of€theÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€Definition€of€Disability,€42€Vill.€L.€Rev.€409,€529-33€(1997).ÌÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€21€Hearings€on€Accessibility€of€Public€Buildings€to€the€Physically€HandicappedÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€Before€the€Subcommittee€on€Public€Buildings€and€Grounds€of€the€SenateÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€Committee€on€Public€Works,€90th€Cong.€(1967);€Hearings€on€Building€DesignÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€for€the€Physically€Disabled€Before€the€Subcommittee€on€Public€Buildings€onÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€Grounds€of€the€House€Committee€on€Public€Works,€90th€Cong.€(1968).€See€alsoÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€S.€Rep.€No.€90-538€(1968),€reprinted€in€1968€U.S.C.C.A.N.,€3214;€H.R.€Rep.€No.Ì€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€90-1532€(1968);€H.R.€Conf.€Rep.€No.€90-1787€(1968).ÌÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€22€See.€S.€Rep.€No.€101-116,€at€4,€6,€8-9,€16,€17€(1989);€Americans€with€DisabilitiesÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€Act€of€1989;€Hearings€on€S.€933€Before€the€Senate€Committee€on€Labor€andÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€Human€Resources€and€the€Subcommittee€on€the€Handicapped,€101st€Cong.€AtÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€18-20,€252-58€(1989);€H.R.€Rep.€No.€101-485,€pt.€2.€At€25,€26,€27-28€(1990);Ì€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€Americans€with€Disabilities€Act€of€1988:€Hearing€on€H.R.€4498€Before€theÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€Subcommittee€on€Select€Education€of€the€House€Committee€on€Education€andÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€Labor,€100th€Cong.€At€1038-43,€1328-35€(1988):€From€ADA€to€Empowerment:€TheÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€Report€of€the€Task€Force€on€Rights€and€Empowerment€of€Americans€withÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€Disabilities,€at€18€(1990).ÌÌÌÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€HOME€|€FAQs€|€NEWSROOM€|€SITE€MAP€|€FEDERAL€AGENCIES€|ÏRESOURCESÌÌÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€Last€Updated:€August€15,€2000ÌÌñ ñ